18th century, what a century. Galleys are being built at shipyards, which played a decisive role in the defeat of the Swedes at Gangut

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Books

, Pakhsaryan N.. The authors of the articles that make up the sections of the monograph represent various aspects of the emotional life of the “age of reason,” embodied in philosophical works, poetry, drama, prose, as well as ...
XVIII century: laughter and tears in the literature and art of the era of enlightenment, N. Pakhsaryan. The authors of the articles that make up the sections of the monograph present various aspects of the emotional life of the “age of reason”, embodied in philosophical works, poetry, drama, prose, as well as ...

Culture

Many historical lists generally cover achievements made during a particular period. The list below is also a kind of achievement, but not the way we imagine it. This is a slightly different progress made by people in the 18th century.

10. Personal hygiene

Today we place a high value on personal hygiene, but until the early 18th century, a person might never be immersed in water in his entire life. Many people believed that bathing was unhealthy, and that “soaking” your body in water, especially hot water, allowed various kinds of diseases and infections to enter the body. Even if a person still decided to take a bath, he did it in clothes! This habit continued until the end of the 19th century.

9. Deodorant

Until the 1880s, people didn't even think about creating deodorant, despite the fact that most of them smelled very bad most of the time, but they did not experience any discomfort from it. The rich tried to mask the bad smell with a lot of perfume, however, today everyone knows that this method does not work.

It is worth noting that back in the 9th century, the polymath Ziryab proposed the idea of creating a deodorant for armpits, but it did not take root. Until 1888, nothing like this existed. It was this year that mass production of the first deodorants began, which had phenomenal success in the West. These deodorants are still available today, they are produced under the Mama brand.

8. Grooming

Women did not take care of their body hair. IN Western world Removing body hair did not become a common practice until the 1920s. There are certainly some countries where women still don't do anything about their body hair. However, there is no need to talk about this now.

7. Toilets

Houses at that time smelled foul of natural excrement human body. There was no running water back then, and most people relieved themselves in a pot, which could be left until someone decided to throw its contents out the nearest window. Later, pots were preserved in some houses, but open toilets had already been created. However, even in the Victorian era, potties were used as an emergency toilet at night.

6. Toilet paper

Toilet paper was invented at the end of the 18th century, and until then people used improvised means. The rich had the luxury of wiping themselves with scraps of cloth. The poor used old rags, leaves, moss and... their hands! Even the ancient Romans lived better - for these purposes they used cloth wrapped around a stick, and then immersed it in a bucket of water. The picture shows a portable toilet from the 18th century.

5. "Bed" insects

Infestations of bed bugs and insects became rampant in the 18th century. They were considered the norm of life. Unfortunately, these insects have certainly been responsible for the spread of numerous diseases. They stayed constant problem up to modern times. In the Victorian era, women were encouraged to wipe down the bottoms of their beds with kerosene to kill any unwanted guests.

4. Time of critical days

Women during that period had several “models” of behavior. Some used a piece of fabric, and the same one more than once; moreover, these scraps were dried in a visible place at the same time as other things, without any embarrassment. Therefore, it was better not to look over the fence to the neighbors. However, there were also women who did not use anything and allowed gravity to “do its thing.”

3. Manure, manure and more manure

In big cities, the streets smelled of a mixture of manure, human excrement and rotting plants. If you've ever wondered where the gentleman's tradition of walking closer to the edge of the road came from, don't dig too deep, it also came about to protect your lady from the splashes of passing cars. The next time you see a man in a movie gallantly throwing his cloak on the ground for his lady to pass, remember: it's likely that he's not covering up a puddle at all.

2. Oral hygiene

There was more to dental hygiene than using a toothpick and wiping your gums with a tissue. Women tended to have worse teeth than men due to the loss of vitamins during pregnancy.

For poor people, everything happened exactly this way, but for the wealthy, the Italian company Marvis began producing its own in the early 1700s toothpaste(They continue to produce it to this day). But frankly, people were more confused about buying meat than they were interested in buying Italian toothpaste. It was completely unimportant.

1. Mercury

Absolutely every person at that time was infected with lice. But fear not, as they have chosen an amazing cure for it: mercury! In the 18th century, Europe had a love affair with mercury. They ate it, rubbed it into their skin, became crazy and died. On the “positive” side, it killed the lice first!

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century of the reign of Peter I, who decided to short terms change Russia.

This is the time of Streltsy riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom. But at the same time, this period of Russian history is characterized by the development of enlightenment, the discovery of new educational institutions, including Moscow University, Academy of Arts.

In 1756 in the capital Russian Empire the first theater appeared. The end of the 18th century was the heyday of the creativity of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky, and sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and historical characters of that time:

At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich died, and his son Fyodor Alekseevich ascended the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became Emperor Peter I, will become king in 1682. In 1689, Peter, at the encouragement of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, married Evdokia Lopukhina, which means he reached adulthood, as was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised the archers against Peter, but the revolt was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in a monastery, and the throne passed to Peter, although until 1696 Peter’s formal co-ruler was his brother, Ivan Alekseevich.

Peter I had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2m 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his entourage had to not just follow him, but run.

From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky who played a big role when Peter came to power.

In addition, the young tsar’s favorite pastime was shooting boyars with steamed turnips.

Gradually, the king also had “favorite” close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, or simply Aleksashka, the son of the palace groom, who from the position of the royal orderly became the most illustrious prince, the richest man; “German” (Dutch) Franz Lefort, who became the tsar’s main adviser after his accession to the throne.

It was Lefort who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem lay in one of the two well-known Russian problems - roads.

Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes two campaigns against Azov, the second of which was successful and ended with the founding of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Tagany Rog). The war with Turkey, which began in 1697, showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons.

For this purpose, the Grand Embassy was sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Pyotr Alekseevich. He was the first Russian Tsar to visit Europe.

Formally, Peter followed incognito, but his conspicuous appearance easily gave him away. And the tsar himself, during his travels, often preferred to personally lead negotiations with foreign rulers. Perhaps this behavior is explained by the desire to simplify the conventions associated with diplomatic etiquette.

Returning from the trip and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely remake it and, as you know, he succeeds.

Reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations:

He disbanded the Streltsy army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in almost European uniforms and puts at the head of foreign officers.
He transferred the country to a new chronology, from the Nativity of Christ, the old one was carried out from the creation of the world. January 1, 1700 in Russia began to celebrate New Year.
He obliged every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result Russia received a large fleet.
He carried out urban reform - self-government was introduced in cities, and mayors were placed at the head of cities. Although this was the end of the “Europeanization” of cities.

In 1700, Peter I decides to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721 G.

The Northern War began unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled from the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army.

Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, guns were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are cast on them, then metallurgical enterprises are built. By the middle of the century, there were 75 metallurgical enterprises operating in the country, which fully met the country's needs for cast iron, almost half of the production was exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so weapons factories were built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass production are developing.

At shipyards, galleys are built that played decisive role in the defeat of the Swedes at Gangut.

Peter introduced military service - conscription - from 20 households, 1 person went to serve for 25 years; He also introduces compulsory service to the nobility for 25 years. These measures made it possible to quickly create new army- 20 thousand sailors and 35 thousand. ground forces.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money.

To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, and fiscal officials were assigned to monitor them; created a number of technical universities (Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers. In order to encourage not only nobles to study, but also ordinary people Peter issues a decree according to which everyone who graduates from high school will know foreign languages, will receive nobility.

To boost the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a capitation tax (a male soul). The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people of the Russian Empire. This provoked an increase in arrears.

To stop thefts, because... Everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov; the Tsar orders not only the suspect, but also his entire family to be hanged on the rack.

A number of additional fees were introduced - a beard fee, a fee for wearing Russian dress, and those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduced serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, and artisans to cities.

By decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and received the name “eternally given.” This form of labor hampered the development of Russia; they got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I strives to develop trade. They introduce customs duties much more for imported goods than for exported goods. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf economy.
The reign of Peter was a time of transformation in Russia, a time of reform. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative and social reforms, and he also changed the judicial system.

Administrative reforms of Peter I:

Peter divides the country into provinces; at the head of the provinces was a governor-general, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty.
Peter in 1711-1721 abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the board was appointed by the king “according to his intelligence, and not according to the nobility of the family,” i.e. good education was required for service
In 1711, the Senate became the highest state body, which, in the absence of the Tsar, performed his functions
At the head of all state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

Social policy of Peter I.

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank being ensign. Anyone who reached the 8th rank received nobility. The judicial system was changed - “they judged not by word, but by pen,” i.e. all court cases were formalized in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.

In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs.

Peter I forcibly resettled about 1,000 nobles to St. Petersburg, but after Peter’s death, the Russian tsars preferred Moscow (until 1918, when St. Petersburg again became the capital).

In 1725, with the death of Peter I, the era of palace coups.

During the reigns of Catherine I, from 1725 to 1727, and Peter II, from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of emperor.

During the reign of Anna Ioanovna, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various kinds of German adventurers were in power.

Under Elizaveta Petrovna, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Shuvalovs and Razumovskys, the empress’s favorites, played a prominent role. Elizabeth's heir was Peter III Fedorovich. He pursued a policy that the Russian nobility did not accept. As a result, in 1762, after another coup, the wife of Peter III, Catherine II, ascended the throne at 33 years old.

It was announced that her husband Peter was killed “by accident.” The 34 years of Catherine II's reign went down in history as "golden age of nobility" , because she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, and held a General Land Survey in 1765, i.e. divided the land among the nobles. The opportunity arose to buy and sell collateral, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on Catherine’s side.

surveying- this is a set of works aimed at determining and securing the boundaries of a certain land plot on the ground.

In addition, she gave the nobles 600 thousand serfs for their service, for example, Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov received several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under pain of hard labor, it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to sell serfs “at retail”, i.e. Families were mercilessly split up.

Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery.

During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of her favorites, raised a galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was inspired by the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own, original way. So she believed that enlightenment should affect only the upper strata of society; she did not give freedom to the peasants, because this would lead to a riot.

Catherine II was especially frightened by the Pugachev rebellion (1773-1775), in which serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, and Kalmyks took part. The Peasants' War was defeated, but Catherine learned the main lesson from it - the peasants should not be given freedom, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great:

Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development.
Created a number of educational educational institutions, for example, Free Economic Society, Institute of Noble Maidens. Thus, in the Free Economic Society, agriculture and technical innovations were studied and introduced (prizes were given for each invention); through the efforts of this society, potatoes were introduced (initiated by Andrei Bolotov).
Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories doubled, and they were not only serfs, but also hired ones, i.e. the first peasant workers appear (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investments.
Development of new lands. In order to develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, Southern Ukraine), she donates them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites “foreigners” - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians founded the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians brought viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who escape and settle in new lands will be free.
Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but leased it for 100 years so that the Americans could develop it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796-1801) became emperor.

Paul I

With him domestic politics was also pro-noble and pro-serfdom. Serfdom is becoming increasingly widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense after the next innovations of Paul I.

Paul banned noble meetings in the provinces; at his whim, he could exile some nobles and elevate others. In addition, the severance of relations with England hit the income of landowners, because Agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy; Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne. This is how the 18th century ended in Russia.

Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

Since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state.
Russia's modernization is being carried out according to a catch-up scenario, and we take from the West what we like.
Modernization is carried out at the expense of its own people, i.e. Russia is a self-colony.
Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization. Although it can be said that this is characteristic not only of Russia in the 18th century, this state of affairs has persisted to this day.

The important 18th century holds a special place in history. This is one of the most “integral” eras, which is called the last century of the dominance of aristocratic culture. Thanks to this period in our modern world a culture of cleanliness and caring for your body has arrived. Here are just some interesting facts regarding hygiene and life in the 18th century in Russia.

Hygiene procedures

Modern man It’s hard to imagine without washing, taking a bath or shower. But residents of that time considered such procedures dangerous to their health. There was an opinion that hot water promotes the penetration of infections into the body. That is why water procedures were used in clothing until the end of the 19th century.

There is an opinion that the infrequent bathing of people is a consequence of medieval customs. But in the Middle Ages, people washed much more often, knowing that sloppiness leads to epidemics. Negative attitude towards water procedures- a consequence of the philosophy of the Renaissance, when washing too often was considered harmful to health.

As for the oral cavity, teeth were cleaned with a toothpick or wiped with a rag. Later, the production of toothpaste was launched, but only wealthy people could afford to buy it.

Deodorant appeared at the end of the 18th century. Unpleasant odors Upper class people hid it on their bodies behind a layer of perfume. By the end of 1800, they launched the production of antiperspirants; they have survived to this day under the “Mama” brand.

Hair care and removal of body hair were not part of the habits of people of that era. Although even now there is an ambiguous attitude towards hair removal - it certainly does not help health.

Restrooms

Unpleasant odors came from every house. This is due to the fact that toilets did not exist in our modern understanding. They relieved themselves in the potty. Later, open latrines appeared, the contents of which were poured into the street.

There was no toilet paper; its invention dates back to the end of the 18th century. Instead of paper, they used fabrics that they didn’t mind throwing away.

Fetid odors were not uncommon on the city streets. To protect his lady from the spray that flew from the horse cart, the gentleman walked closer to the edge of the road, often covering her with his cloak.

Insect control

During the Renaissance bed insects were considered the norm. They were carriers and distributors of many infections. To combat them, kerosene was used and the bottom of the beds was wiped with it.

Mercury was another weapon in the fight against insects of that time. With its help, people destroyed lice and harmed their own health.

Thin combs were used to comb out insects for both the poor and the rich. Ladies who were richer bought combs made of ivory or even made of precious metals.

People's lives

Regarding interesting facts from life in the 18th century in Russia, they are well described in the book “Brief information about the northern regions” by the Japanese scientist Hoshu Katsurogawa. Here are just a few of the oddities that surprised the Japanese guest.

Appearance

Russians have dark hair, blue eyes and noses like potatoes. Peasants have beards, and nobles are shaved. The inhabitants of Siberia are dark-eyed. All are tall, with correct posture. Peace-loving, moderately strict and hardworking.

Reference female beauty– bright blush on the cheeks. In clothes they resemble the Germans, and the men resemble the Dutch.

To achieve gray hair, sprinkle hair with powder or starch.

Life

People's houses are lower than churches.

Salaries are paid in money, not in grain.

They speak Russian, interweaving words from French or German.

When a child is born, they give money. A relative who comes up with a richer name for the baby. The newborn is placed in a box suspended from the roof, covered with straw.

The husband has one wife. To marry a Russian, a foreigner must accept the Russian faith by changing his first and last name. In rich families, blacks serve from 2 to 8 people, everything depends on the wealth of the owner.

Food

The dishes are hearty. They start with ham and bread, chicken soup and beef, then fish broth and, to top it off, dough balls. Before serving sweets, they eat goose and thin porridge.

They do not skimp on sugar and oil for cooking. The bird is stuffed with vegetables and cereals. Ordinary people eat meat or fish with bread.

Beef is considered an everyday food among all segments of the population.

Weather

The country is cold, this is due to its location.

Frosts in St. Petersburg and Yakutsk are severe.

Summer is not hot, so cereals grow poorly.

Entertainment

The main holiday in Russia is the birthday of the Empress. Unlike the New Year, it is celebrated much more magnificently.

Women's roles in the theater are played by actresses, not by male actors.

Everyone rides horses. Women sit sideways, bending one leg under themselves, and hanging the other out of the saddle.

Russia has always been a mystery for many countries and their representatives. If we talk about the 18th century, there was a lot of things that are now not used and forgotten, but also things and phenomena appeared that can be seen in our time.