Poetry is one of the most ancient literary genres. Not yet knowing writing, people saw that any story is easier to understand if it is written in rhymed verse.
Poets give sound to words smallest value than its content. Poems composed by poets are simply set to music and transformed into beautiful songs.
Poems are usually written in rhyme. This means that the endings of the last words in two or more lines must be consonant with each other. However, rhyme is not indispensable for the poet, and from time to time they write so-called “blank verse”, devoid of rhyme.
Large poems, or poems, are divided into parts - chapters or couplets. Each line of a poem must have a precise, cyclic rhythm, which is called poetic meter. Rhythm is the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a verse.
There are many types of poetry - it can be narrative, lyrical or dramatic.
A narrative poem tells a story. A lyric poem conveys the thoughts and feelings of the poet. A dramatic poem has characters and is akin to a theatrical play.
The most famous playwright who wrote his plays in verse was William Shakespeare.
Instructions
If a poem is written in sublime power, it glorifies the deeds of someone or glorifies greatness, then it is either an ode or a hymn. They can be distinguished by the fact that a hymn is a song genre, which, as a rule, is rarely found as a text. In addition, hymns are usually not addressed to a specific individual. The odes contain a more sublime and outdated vocabulary, because this is a very old, still classic genre. The hymns are still relevant today.
The absence of a strict composition (there is no division into stanzas), narration, sadness, dragging - these are all signs of elegy. In elegies, the author’s “I” is very important, so the narration is often in the first person.
From Europe we have such a genre as the sonnet. A sonnet can be identified by its form. Traditionally it consists of fourteen lines arranged in a special way. There are three types of sonnets: French (abba abba ccd eed (or ccd ede)), Italian (abab abab cdc dcd (or cde cde)), sonnet (abab cdcd efef gg).
If you see a short poem (no more than two quatrains, as a rule), in which a person is wittily ridiculed, then this is the epigram genre. An important element of the epigram is comedy. Sometimes it is humor, and sometimes it is evil satire.
If the poetic work you see has a large volume, then it is a ballad. In ballads there is always main character, around which they develop. The events described in ballads are always unusual, they have elements of magic, and the action is very dramatic. Initially, ballads were a song genre, so they can also be distinguished by their melodious rhythm. At the center of a ballad there is always some kind of conflict; the main ones are of different polarities, some represent the side of good, while others represent the side of evil.
Lyrics ( from Greek lyra musical instrument, to the accompaniment of which poems and songs were sung), a type of literature in which what is primary is not the object, but the subject of the statement and his relationship to what is depicted. The central character of a lyrical work is its creator himself, and above all his inner world. This is the objectification of lyrical experience in the form of lyrical experience (alienation of a personal state, but again in personal forms).
lyrical hero, the image of a poet in lyrics, one of the ways to reveal the author's consciousness. A lyrical hero is an artistic double of the author-poet, growing out of the text of lyrical compositions (a cycle, a book of poems, a lyric poem, the entire body of lyrics) as a clearly defined figure or life role, as a person endowed with certainty of individual destiny, psychological clarity of the inner world, and sometimes and features of plastic appearance. This concept was first formulated by Yu. Tynyanov in 1921 in relation to the work of A. Blok. The lyrical hero is the “I” created” (M. Prishvin). At the same time, this image is accompanied by a special sincerity and “documentary” lyrical outpouring, introspection and confession prevail over fiction. When referring to the image of a lyrical hero, it is necessary to remember his: 1) integrity; 2) inadequacy to its author. Attention to the inner life of the lyrical hero, changes, states, sensations.
In literary criticism, there is a classification of lyrics by genres and themes (love, civil, philosophical, landscape).
There are also meditative lyrics (reflections on the eternal problems of existence) and suggestive lyrics (suggestive, focused on conveying an emotional state).
Lyrical genres: dithyrambs, hymns, iambs, songs, elegies, satires, lamentations, laments, tensons, albs, ballads, pastorellas, sirvents, canzones, madrigals, sonnets, triolet, epistles.
Historical principle of classification of lyrics:
In folk art, lyrical works differed either in their everyday function (lamentations: wedding, funeral, recruiting, songs: dance, game, round dance, wedding, carol) or in their tune (drawn-out, frequent).
In ancient literature - by the nature of performance: choral and monodic, declamatory and song, elegiac and satirical; hymn, dithyramb, paean, ode, scholia, phrenos, elegy, encomia, epithalamus, epigram, epitaph, iambics.
Middle Ages - troubadours (alba, ballad, romance, pastorella, canzona, sirventa, tenson, lament), trouvères (songs about the Crusades, weaving songs, songs about an unsuccessful marriage).
Renaissance – canzone, sonnet, madrigal, triolet, rondo, rondel.
Alba(Provence alba, lit. dawn) a genre of medieval courtly lyrics: a morning song about a secret night love meeting, interrupted by the morning dawn; in form - predominantly strophic dialogue. It developed among the troubadours. Wed. serena: “evening song” - an invitation to a date (see. Serenade).
Anacreontic poetry, light, cheerful lyrics common in European literature of the Renaissance and Enlightenment. An example of artistic poetry was the late Greek collection of poems Anacreontika, created in imitation of the ancient Greek poet Anacreon and later erroneously attributed to him. The main motives of Anacreontics are earthly joys, wine, love, and less often - political free-thinking. Anacreontic poems in Russia were written by M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin, K.N. Batyushkov.
Ballad(French ballade, from Provence ballada - dance song), 1) solid form of French. poetry of the 14th–15th centuries: three stanzas with identical rhymes (ababbcbc - for 8-syllable and ababbccdcd for 10-syllable verse) with a refrain and a final half-stanza - “premise” (address to the addressee). Vivid examples are in the poetry of Fr. Villon. It became widespread outside of French poetry only in stylizations (V. Bryusov, M. Kuzmin). 2) Lyric-epic genre of English-Scottish. folk poetry of the 14th–16th centuries on historical (later even on fairy-tale and everyday) themes - about border wars, about nationalities. the legendary folk hero - Robin Hood - usually with tragedy, mystery, abrupt narration, dramatic dialogue. Interest in the folk ballad in the era of pre-romanticism and romanticism gave rise to a similar genre of literary ballad (W. Scott, G. Burger, F. Schiller, A. Mitskevich, V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, A. Tolstoy); here, fairy-tale or historical themes were usually developed; modern themes were rarely involved, usually with the aim of glorifying the event or, conversely, ironically (H. Heine). In Soviet poetry, poems about exploits during the Great Patriotic War often took the form of a ballad (N. Tikhonov, K. Simonov).
Bucolic poetry ( Greek bukolika, from bukolikos - shepherd) genre of ancient poetry of Hellenistic and Roman times (3rd century BC - 5th century AD), small poems in hexameter in narrative or dialogic form describing the peaceful life of shepherds, their simple life, tender love and pipe songs (often using folklore motifs). Works of bucolic poetry were called idylls (lit. - picture) or eclogues (lit. - selection); subsequently, it was conventionally believed that an idyll requires more feeling, and an eclogue requires more action. The founder and classic of Greek bucolic poetry was Theocritus, and of Roman poetry - Virgil. In modern European literature, bucolic poetry, crossing with medieval folklore in the pastoral of the 12th - 13th centuries, gave birth to various genres of pastoral of the 14th - 18th centuries. Long's novel Daphnis and Chloe is adjacent to bucolic poetry.
Gazelle(Arabic ghazal), a type of monorimic lyric poem (usually 12-15 beits). Distributed in the poetry of Bl. and Wed. East and South-East. Asia. Most likely, it arose from pre-Islamic Persian folk lyrical songs and was finally formed by the 13th – 14th centuries. In the first beat, both hemistiches rhyme, then there is a rhyme scheme according to the scheme ba, ca, da... In the last beat, the author's takhallus should be mentioned. Each beit of a gazelle, as a rule, contains a complete thought and has an independent meaning. The genre reached a high degree of perfection in the works of Persian and Tajik poets Rudaki, Saadi, Hafiz.
Hymn ( Greek gymnos - praise), celebrations. a song based on programmatic verses. There are known anthems of state, revolutionary, religious, in honor of historical events, etc. The most ancient hymns go back to the literature of the early state formations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India (for example, the hymn of the Rig Veda). In the anthem one sees the beginnings of epic, lyricism, and drama.
Dithyramb(Greek dithyrambos), a genre of ancient lyric poetry that arose (apparently in Ancient Greece) as a choral song, a hymn in honor of the god Dionysus or Bacchus, and later in honor of other gods and heroes. Accompanied by an orgasmic dance; had the beginnings of a dialogue (between the lead singer and the choir) and contributed to the emergence of ancient drama. It took shape literary in the 7th century BC. e., flourishing in the 5th – 6th centuries BC (poetry of Simonides of Kios, Pindar). In new European literature there are imitations of the ancient dithyramb (for example, in F. Schiller, I. Herder, satirical in F. Nietzsche).
Cantata ( from Italian cantata, from Lat. canto – I sing). 1) A large poetic work designed for musical accompaniment, usually in the form of alternating arias, recitatives and choruses, written in different sizes; in content - usually festive poems for the occasion, of a high allegorical style, close to the Pindaric ode. There were cantatas of more religious and epic content (oratorios) and more secular and lyrical ones (cantatas proper). Developed in the art of Baroque and Classicism of the 17th – 18th centuries (J.B. Rousseau, G.R. Derzhavin).
2) A large vocal-instrumental work of a solemn or lyrical-epic nature, consisting of solo (arias, recitatives), ensemble and choral parts. Russian composers of the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries composed cantatas based on poetic texts that were not specifically intended for this purpose (“Moscow” by P. Tchaikovsky with poems by A. Maikov, “On the Kulikovo Field” by Yu. Shaporin with poems by A. Blok).
Madrigal ( French Madrigal, Italian. Madrigale, from Late Lat. Matricale is a song in the mother’s native language), a small poem written in free verse, mainly of loving-complimentary (less often abstract-meditative) content, usually with a paradoxical sharpening at the end (bringing the madrigal closer to the epigram). It developed in Italian poetry of the 16th centuries on the basis of the madrigal of the 14th–15th centuries - a short love song (to music) with motifs of bucolic poetry; was popular in the salon culture of Europe in the 17th–18th centuries (in Russia - N. Karamzin).
Macaronic poetry(Italian . poesia maccheronica), satirical or comic poetry, in which comedy is achieved by mixing words and forms from different languages. Russian macaroon poetry was based mainly on parodying the speech of French nobles.
Message, epistole (Greek epistole), lit. genre, poetic writing. In European poetry, it first appeared in Horace, lives in the Latin new language poetry of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and flourishes in the era of classicism of the 17th–18th centuries. (N. Boileau, Voltaire, A. Pop, A.P. Sumarokov). In the era of romanticism, it loses its genre characteristics (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin “Message to the Censor”), and by the middle of the 19th century it disappears as a genre.
The formal sign of a message is the presence of an appeal to a specific addressee and, accordingly, such motives as requests, wishes, exhortation. The content of the message, according to tradition, is predominantly moral, philosophical and didactic, but there were numerous messages of narrative, panegyric, satirical, love, etc. The line between the message and other genres that developed the same content was erased as the formal characteristics weakened, so many messages are close to satires (Horace), elegies (Ovid), didactic poem (A. Pop), lyrical poems of an indefinite genre (“In the depths of the Siberian ores” by A.S. Pushkin).
Oda ( from Greek ode – song), a genre of lyric poetry. In antiquity, the word “ode” at first had no terminological meaning, then it began to mean a predominantly lyrical choral song written in stanzas of a solemn, upbeat, moralizing nature (especially the songs of Pindar). In the Renaissance and Baroque era (XVI-XVII centuries), the word was applied mainly to pathetic high lyric poetry, guided by ancient examples (Pindar, Horace) and written in strophic verse (P. Ronsard). In the poetry of classicism, the ode (XVII-XVIII centuries) is the leading genre of high style with canonical themes (glorification of God, fatherland, life wisdom), techniques (quiet or swift attack, the presence of digressions, permitted lyrical disorder) and types (spiritual solemn odes - Pindaric , moralizing - Horatian, love - Anacreontic). Classics of the genre - F. Malherbe, J.B. Rousseau. In Russia – M.V. Lomonosov and A.P. Sumarokov (respectively “enthusiastic” and “clear” types). In the era of pre-Romanticism (late 18th century) genre features odes are being shaken (G.R. Derzhavin).
Solid forms- these are poetic forms in which both the volume and the strophic structure of the poem are more or less firmly determined by tradition. In terms of the predictability of formal elements, solid forms are close to stanzas, but in stanzas the repetition of identical forms occurs within one poem, and in solid forms - between different poems of the same tradition.
According to the severity of the organization, solid forms are distinguished, in which 1) both volume and stanza are fixed ( sonnet, triolet, rondo, rondel, sextine; 2) the volume is not fixed, the stanza is fixed ( terzines, villanelle, ritornello; 3) neither the volume nor the stanza is fixed ( canzona, virele, glossa).
Villanelle(French Villanelle - village song) - solid poetic form: 6 stanzas with rhyme A 1 bA 2 abA 1 abA 2 abA 1 abA 2 abA 1 A 2, where A 1 and A 2 are repeating choruses. It took shape in French poetry of the 16th century, modeled on imitations of Italian folk songs, and became widespread only in stylizations (“It was all an instant dream…” by V.Ya. Bryusov).
Virele(French virelai - refrain, chorus based on onomatopoeia) - song form in medieval French poetry: chorus + 2-member stanza of a structure not identical with the chorus + 1-member stanza of a structure identical to the chorus + chorus: ABBA + (сd + cd+ abba +ABBA).
Gloss- a solid form in Spanish poetry of the 14th–17th centuries: a verse of several stanzas (usually 4 decimes), the last lines of which constitute a special stanza (introductory motto), commented on by subsequent stanzas (for an example, see Cervantes’s novel “Don Quixote”, part II , chapter 18). Rarely used in other literatures; cf., for example, similarly constructed poems by V. Bryusov “Stained Glass Triptych” and “Women’s Babble in Parks...”.
Canzona(from Italian canzone - song) - semi-solid form of Italian. poetry. The stanza of a classical canzone consists of an ascending part (two members with identical arrangement of short and long verses) and a descending part (one member, coda (Italian coda, lit. tail: 1) the descending part of stanzas of song and dance origin, closing the two-member part; 2 ) additional lines, i.e., in addition to 14 at the end of the comic sonnet)). The whole poem consists of 5-7 stanzas and one more coda. In other literatures it is used in stylizations. An example of a canzone stanza (Vyach. Ivanov according to Petrarch’s scheme: AbC+AbС+сDdEE, where the capital letters are long and the small letters are short verses):
Great Bell on pilgrimage
I called you... Longing
Suddenly trembled impatient
And the soul escaped into its freedom
(For feat or peace?)
From the tender shackles of jealous love...
And again over a thin field
I see you as Sir Ceres:
With sadness and faith
You call rain and sun to the fields,
Where the earth still hides the captive rain.
Each literary genre is divided into genres, which are characterized by common features for a group of works. There are epic, lyrical, lyric epic, and drama genres.
Epic genres
Fairy tale(literary) - a work in prose or poetic form, based on folklore traditions folk tale(one storyline, fiction, depiction of the struggle between good and evil, antithesis and repetition as the leading principles of composition). For example, the satirical tales of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Parable(from the Greek parabole - “located (placed) behind”) - a minor genre of epic, a small narrative work of an edifying nature, containing moral or religious teaching based on broad generalization and the use of allegories. Russian writers often used the parable as an inserted episode in their works to fill the story with deep meaning. Let us remember the Kalmyk fairy tale told by Pugachev to Pyotr Grinev (A. Pushkin “ Captain's daughter") - in fact, this is the culmination in revealing the image of Emelyan Pugachev: “Rather than eat carrion for three hundred years, it’s better to get drunk with living blood, and then what will God give!” The plot of the parable about the resurrection of Lazarus, which Sonechka Marmeladova read to Rodion Raskolnikov, prompts the reader to think about the possible spiritual rebirth of the main character of the novel F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". In M. Gorky’s play “At the Depth,” the wanderer Luke tells a parable “about the righteous land” to show how dangerous the truth can be for weak and desperate people.
Fable- small epic genre; The fable, complete in plot and having an allegorical meaning, is an illustration of a well-known everyday or moral rule. A fable differs from a parable in the completeness of the plot; a fable is characterized by unity of action, conciseness of presentation, the absence of detailed characteristics and other elements of a non-narrative nature that hinder the development of the plot. Typically, a fable consists of 2 parts: 1) a story about an event that is specific but easily generalizable, 2) a moral lesson that follows or precedes the story.
Essay- genre, hallmark which is “writing from life.” The role of the plot is weakened in the essay, because... fiction is of little importance here. The author of an essay, as a rule, narrates in the first person, which allows him to include his thoughts in the text, make comparisons and analogies - i.e. use the means of journalism and science. An example of the use of the essay genre in literature is “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev.
Novella(Italian novella - news) is a type of story, an epic action-packed work with an unexpected outcome, characterized by brevity, neutral style presentation, lack of psychologism. Chance, the intervention of fate, plays a large role in the development of the action of the novella. A typical example Russian short story is a cycle of stories by I.A. Bunin " Dark alleys": the author does not psychologically draw the characters of his characters; a whim of fate, blind chance brings them together for a while and separates them forever.
Story- an epic genre of small volume with a small number of heroes and the short duration of the events depicted. At the center of the story is an image of some event or life phenomenon. In Russian classical literature, the recognized masters of the story were A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin, M. Gorky, A.I. Kuprin et al.
Tale- a prose genre that does not have a stable volume and occupies an intermediate place between the novel, on the one hand, and the story and short story on the other, gravitating towards a chronicle plot that reproduces natural history life. A story differs from a short story and a novel in the volume of text, the number of characters and problems raised, the complexity of the conflict, etc. In a story, it is not so much the movement of the plot that is important, but the descriptions: the characters, the scene, the psychological state of a person. For example: “The Enchanted Wanderer” by N.S. Leskova, “Steppe” by A.P. Chekhov, “Village” by I.A. Bunina. In the story, episodes often follow one after another according to the principle of chronicle, there is no internal connection between them, or it is weakened, so the story is often structured as a biography or autobiography: “Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth” by L.N. Tolstoy, “The Life of Arsenyev” by I.A. Bunin, etc. (Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia / edited by Prof. A.P. Gorkin. - M.: Rosman, 2006.)
Novel(French roman - a work written in one of the “living” Romance languages, and not in “dead” Latin) - an epic genre, the subject of the image in which is a certain period or the whole life of a person; What is this novel? - the novel is characterized by the duration of the events described, the presence of several storylines and a system of characters, which includes groups of equal characters (for example: main characters, secondary, episodic); works of this genre cover a wide range of life phenomena and a wide range of socially significant problems. There are different approaches to classifying novels: 1) according to structural features(parable novel, myth novel, dystopian novel, travel novel, novel in verse, etc.); 2) on issues (family and everyday life, social and everyday life, socio-psychological, psychological, philosophical, historical, adventurous, fantastic, sentimental, satirical, etc.); 3) according to the era in which one or another type of novel dominated (knightly, enlightenment, Victorian, Gothic, modernist, etc.). It should be noted that the exact classification of genre varieties of the novel has not yet been established. There are works whose ideological and artistic originality does not fit into the framework of any one method of classification. For example, the work of M.A. Bulgakov’s “The Master and Margarita” contains both acute social and philosophical issues; in it, the events of biblical history (in the author’s interpretation) and contemporary Moscow life of the 20-30s of the XX century develop in parallel, scenes full of drama are interspersed satirical. Based on these features of the work, it can be classified as a socio-philosophical satirical myth novel.
Epic novel- this is a work in which the subject of the image is not the history of private life, but the fate of an entire people or an entire social group; the plot is built on the basis of nodes - key, turning points historical events. At the same time, in the destinies of the heroes, like in a drop of water, the fate of the people is reflected and, on the other hand, the picture of people’s life is made up of individual destinies, private life stories. An integral part of the epic are crowd scenes, thanks to which the author creates a generalized picture of the flow of people's life and the movement of history. When creating an epic, the artist is required to have the highest skill in connecting episodes (scenes of private life and public scenes), psychological authenticity in depicting characters, historicism of artistic thinking - all this makes the epic the pinnacle of literary creativity, which not every writer can reach. That is why only two works created in the epic genre are known in Russian literature: “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov. Lyric genres
Song- a small poetic lyrical genre characterized by simplicity of musical and verbal construction.
Elegy(Greek elegeia, elegos - plaintive song) - a poem of meditative or emotional content, dedicated to philosophical thoughts caused by contemplation of nature or deeply personal experiences about life and death, about unrequited (as a rule) love; The prevailing mood of the elegy is sadness, light sadness. Elegy is V.A.’s favorite genre. Zhukovsky (“Sea”, “Evening”, “Singer”, etc.).
Sonnet(Italian sonetto, from Italian sonare - to sound) is a lyric poem of 14 lines in the form of a complex stanza. The lines of a sonnet can be arranged in two ways: two quatrains and two tercets, or three quatrains and a distich. Quatrains can have only two rhymes, while terzettos can have two or three.
The Italian (Petrarccan) sonnet consists of two quatrains with the rhyme abba abba or abab abab and two tercets with the rhyme cdc dcd or cde cde, less often cde edc. French sonnet form: abba abba ccd eed. English (Shakespearean) - with rhyme scheme abab cdcd efef gg.
The classic sonnet assumes a certain sequence of thought development: thesis - antithesis - synthesis - denouement. Judging by the name of this genre, special importance is attached to the musicality of the sonnet, which is achieved by alternating male and female rhymes.
European poets developed many original types of sonnet, as well as the wreath of sonnets - one of the most difficult literary forms.
Russian poets turned to the sonnet genre: A.S. Pushkin (“Sonnet”, “To the Poet”, “Madonna”, etc.), A.A. Fet (“Sonnet”, “Rendezvous in the Forest”), poets Silver Age(V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, A.A. Blok, I.A. Bunin).
Message(Greek epistole - epistole) - a poetic letter, in the time of Horace - philosophical and didactic content, later - of any nature: narrative, satirical, love, friendly, etc. A mandatory feature of a message is the presence of an appeal to a specific addressee, motives for wishes, requests. For example: “My Penates” by K.N. Batyushkova, “Pushchina”, “Message to the Censor” by A.S. Pushkin, etc.
Epigram(Greek epgramma - inscription) - a short satirical poem that is a teaching, as well as a direct response to topical events, often political. For example: epigrams by A.S. Pushkin on A.A. Arakcheeva, F.V. Bulgarin, Sasha Cherny’s epigram “In the album to Bryusov”, etc.
Ode(from Greek ōdḗ, Latin ode, oda - song) - a solemn, pathetic, glorifying lyrical work dedicated to the depiction of major historical events or persons, speaking about significant themes of religious and philosophical content. The ode genre was widespread in Russian literature of the 18th - early XIX centuries in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin, in the early works of V.A. Zhukovsky, A.S. Pushkina, F.I. Tyutchev, but at the end of the 20s of the XIX century. Ode was replaced by other genres. Some attempts by some authors to create an ode do not correspond to the canons of this genre (“Ode to the Revolution” by V.V. Mayakovsky, etc.).
Lyric poem- a small poetic work in which there is no plot; the author’s focus is on the inner world, intimate experiences, reflections, and moods of the lyrical hero (the author of the lyrical poem and the lyrical hero are not the same person). Lyric epic genres
Ballad(Provençal ballada, from ballar - to dance; Italian - ballata) - a plot poem, that is, a story of a historical, mythical or heroic nature, presented in poetic form. Typically, a ballad is built on the basis of dialogue between characters, while the plot has no independent meaning - it is a means of creating a certain mood, subtext. Thus, “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” by A.S. Pushkin has philosophical overtones, “Borodino” by M.Yu. Lermontov - socio-psychological.
Poem(Greek poiein - “to create”, “creation”) - a large or medium-sized poetic work with a narrative or lyrical plot (for example, “ Bronze Horseman» A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “The Twelve” by A.A. Blok, etc.), the system of images of the poem may include a lyrical hero (for example, “Requiem” by A.A. Akhmatova).
Prose poem- a small lyrical work in prose form, characterized by increased emotionality, expressing subjective experiences and impressions. For example: “Russian language” by I.S. Turgenev. Genres of drama
Tragedy- a dramatic work, the main conflict of which is caused by exceptional circumstances and insoluble contradictions that lead the hero to death.
Drama- a play whose content is related to the depiction of everyday life; Despite the depth and seriousness, the conflict, as a rule, concerns private life and can be resolved without a tragic outcome.
Comedy- a dramatic work in which the action and characters are presented in funny forms; The comedy is distinguished by the rapid development of action, the presence of complex, intricate plot lines, a happy ending and simplicity of style. There are sitcoms based on cunning intrigue, a special coincidence of circumstances, and comedies of manners (characters), based on ridicule human vices and shortcomings, high comedy, everyday, satirical, etc. For example, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov - high comedy, “The Minor” by D.I. Fonvizina is satirical.
Acrostic
An acrostic is a poem in which the first words of the lines are chosen in such a way that their initial letters, folded in order from top to bottom, form a word, or less often a short phrase. This version of versification first began to be used in Ancient Greece, and only then - in the poetry of other countries. The first acrostics appeared in Russian versification in the 17th century.
Composing such poems is quite difficult task. Many authors love this method - with the help of the first letters you can convey a certain message or hint at the hidden meaning of the entire poem, although most often the first letters form the name of the person to whom the acrostic is dedicated. For aspiring poets, writing these types of poems can be great practice. Less common are mesostic and telestic - more complex forms of acrostic, when a word or phrase is made up of middle or last letters each line.
Free verse
Free verse is somewhat different from the usual poems, where all rhythmic requirements are met and rhyme is used. When writing free verse, the number of feet in stanzas should not be the same, only compliance with rhythm and rhyme is important. The result is a work of poetry that sounds completely different from traditional poetry.
Free verse is most often used in fables; previously it was common in lyric verse, epigrams and epitaphs. It is interesting that rhyme in free verse does not appear in accordance with a certain pattern, but arbitrarily, that is, the alternations of groups of lines rhyming with each other can be absolutely any, while their sequence can change depending different parts poems.
When writing free verse, the author has more expressive means at his disposal, because he is almost free from the framework of rhythm. This is why many poets love to write in the genre of free verse.
Blank verse
Blank verse is characterized complete absence the rhymes and the endings of its lines do not have consonance, but the stanzas themselves are written taking into account the requirements of metrics, that is, they have the same number of feet and are kept in the same size. Compared to free verse, blank verse is easier to understand by ear. When writing blank verse, the author has great freedom in the use of expressive means, so such poems are usually very emotional.
Mixed verse
A mixed verse is a poetic work, when added, the number of feet (rhythmic groups) in stanzas can vary, and the size of the verse itself can also change (for example, iambic can alternate with trochee). When writing mixed poetry, it is easier for the author to convey the mood and hidden meaning of the verse. This is why free verse usually carries a strong emotional charge.
Vers libre
Poetry has always been the most capacious and accurate form of expression of feelings, thoughts and emotions. At the same time, any verse falls under certain canons both in form and content. The technique of versification is full of conventions, which every author must adhere to, while maintaining size, rhyme and a certain number of lines. The only exception is free verse - verse that is not subject to literary canons.
This term first appeared in European poetry of the 20th century. thanks to supporters of such a literary movement as Imagism. Its authorship belongs to the English writer, poet and literary critic Richard Aldington, who in 1914 described with this capacious word the work of such European imagists as Hilda Doolittle, Francis Stuart Flint, Ezra Pound and Thomas Ernst Hume. In particular, Richard Aldington noted that free verse (from the French vers libre - free verse) is one of the highest forms of poetry, as it allows the author to convey his feelings as accurately as possible in words. In fairness, it is worth noting that the collection of imagists, to which Richard Aldington wrote the preface, also included his 10 “free poems”. Therefore, European critics received the poetic anthology very coolly, and the term free verse for many years became synonymous with bad taste and lack of poetic gift. In particular, the English critic and modernist poet Thomas Eliot characterized the adherents of this poetic genre as follows: “The author of free verse is free in everything, except for the need to create good poetry.”
By the middle of the 20th century, the literary world was actually divided into two opposing camps, in which there were supporters and opponents of free verse. It is noteworthy that even the venerable poets of this time, who strictly adhered to poetic canons, eventually resorted to the help of free verse in order to more fully and succinctly convey their ideas to readers. At the same time, such authors as Guillaume Apollinaire, Paul Eluard, Marie Louise Kaschnitz, Nelly Sachs and Jürgen Becker appealed to the fact that free verse is by no means new form poetry, and similar poems can be found among authors of different eras. The biblical commandments can rightfully be considered a classic of free verse, which are well known to every Christian from childhood:
“You shall not covet your neighbor’s house;
Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife,
Not a field of it
Not his servant
Not his slave
Not his ox,
Not his donkey
Not any of his livestock,
Nothing your neighbor has.”
Modern literary critics are unanimous in the opinion that only people endowed with an undoubted poetic gift are capable of composing truly imaginative and sensual free verse. That is why, sooner or later, adherents of classical iambic and trochee turn to prose poetry. But at the same time, working on free verse is much more difficult than working on an ordinary poem. The thing is that the framework of versification that has already become familiar is absent in this case. There is no need to carefully rhyme words and observe the size of each stanza. But at the same time, it is necessary to have truly colossal inner freedom in order to create a subtle poetic canvas filled with meanings, feelings and personal experiences from familiar words.
"I'm looking at
the same
shade
already
5 years.
He collected
Bachelor dust
And the girls who entered here -
Too busy
To clean it.
But I don't mind:
I was too busy
To write
About this before
That the light bulb shines lousy
All these 5 years" (Charles Bukovsky).
Due to the fact that free verse is completely devoid of any conventions and canons, each author has the right to use those means of expressing thoughts that in each specific case seem most acceptable to him. Therefore, rhyme is often found in free verse, which is used solely to correctly place emphasis in a poetic work. This technique was often used by Russian poets of the early 20th century., among whom are Marina Tsvetaeva, Anna Akhmatova, Alexander Blok, Lev Gumilev.
“A strange illness happened to him,
And the sweetest one was taken aback.
Everything stands and looks up,
And he sees neither the stars nor the dawn
With his keen eye - a youth.
And he dozes off - eagles come to him
The noisy wings fly in with a scream,
And they have a wonderful debate about him.
And one is the lord of the rock -
She ruffles his curls with her beak.
But closing my dense eyes,
But with his lips half-opened, he sleeps.
And he doesn’t hear the night guests,
And he doesn’t see, like a watchful beak
The golden-eyed bird will cheer” (Marina Tsvetaeva).
Arvo Mets is rightfully considered the modern ideologist of Russian free verse., who theoretically substantiated the need to use such a poetic form for a more capacious and complete creation of images. “Free verse represents a qualitative leap - a transition from a syllabic style of speech to a new element - to the element of a full-valued word. Any significant word becomes the basis, the unit in free verse.”
Quantems, dotted lines, versets, znomas
The art of poetry, known to mankind since before biblical times, is constantly evolving. The goal of poetry is to illuminate as fully as possible the states of the human soul, without leaving the strict forms of the poetic genre. However, many poets are looking for new poetic forms that could reveal both their poetic gift and the language itself in an unexpected way.
Classical poetic forms, such as sonnets, are most often determined by the method of rhyming (alternating male and female rhymes) and their arrangement (through a line, from line to line, etc.). New poetic forms do not rely only on rhyme, they become more “conceptual”, that is, their formality gives way to meaningful content.
Let’s take, for example, the new poetic form “znom”, which was introduced into poetic circulation by the Belarusian poet Ales Ryazanov.
“Clouds float above the earth... They do not belong to it, do not depend on it. But suddenly they rain on the ground and are struck by lightning.
A high-altitude resident - an eagle - soars majestically in the skies. He knows no equal. But suddenly it breaks down towards the prey - everything that is happening on earth is in sight.
This is poetry, this is art, this is philosophy: we must soar high and do “high” things, but at the same time we must connect with the earth - rain, lightning, the predation of an eagle.
(translation by V.I. Lipnevich)
As critics and the poet himself note, these poetic passages ( Znomy- a word coined by the author) are not only aesthetic, but also epistemological units that reveal the poet’s view of understanding the world. Now the creator is not only the one who can express his intimate feeling of the world, but also give the reader a way of understanding with the help of which he himself can come to creative insight.
Sometimes a new poetic form emerges from a rethinking of what once existed. Such a form, for example, is verset. Probably the very first poems of mankind - biblical verses - were written in the form of a verset. Modern versets are a variation of blank verse, when a whole paragraph of meaning fits in one line. Let's take, for example, the verses of Malvina Maryanova, a poetess who wrote in the 20s of the last century.
“The thin, fragile threads of our hearts were broken.
We are going down different roads.
If someone connected them, we would be together...
People walk by, not hearing your moan, my complaint.
And divided souls cry..."
In more modern look versets reveal themselves in the poetry of the same Ryazanov.
"PLATES
There are signs on the trees.
It says on them how old each tree is, what it is called, what its thickness and height are.
People pass by trees without noticing them - they read the signs.
And the voices of the trees remain unheard,
and the letters of the trees remain unread.”
(translation by V. Kozarovetsky)
Versets allow today's poets to speak in the language of parables, turning to the very ancient strings of our soul.
Dotted lines- these are short (4-6 lines), but succinct poetic forms, somewhat reminiscent of traditional Japanese haiku, but without strict rules of composition.
"Willows"
leaned over the river:
how is it -
on running water
motionless reflections?
(translation by V. Lipnevich)
Quantems they are distinguished by understatement and fragmentation, when the reader himself must figure out the author’s course of his images and build a picture of what is happening. Let us quote a poem by the still young poet Anton Letov, who is mastering quantems.
"Paradise,
Hell.
May, not winter.
The grass is growing
The grass doesn't know
Who planted her?
"Herself".
Poems in prose
On the border between prose and poetry there is an intermediate style of writing poetic works, namely prose poetry. Even at the beginning of the 20th century, they were unhesitatingly classified as poetry, but today prose poems occupy a borderline position. This genre is characterized by poetic content, often consistent in size, but the very way they are written is extremely close to the prose style of presentation - there is no rhyme, no rhythm, no clear division into stanzas.