Mesopotamia. Ancient Mesopotamia The era of Sumerian dominance

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Sumerian city states (3rd millennium BC) Akkadian kingdom (XXIV–XXII centuries BC) Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom (XXII–XX centuries BC) Old Babylonian kingdom (XIX–XVI centuries . BC) Assyria (XXIV-VII centuries BC) Neo-Babylonian kingdom (late 7th-6th centuries BC) MAIN STATES OF ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

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At the turn of the 4th–3rd millennium BC. Separate city-states emerge in the southern part of Mesopotamia. They resembled Egyptian nomes; the population of the cities did not exceed several tens of thousands of people. SUMERIAN CITIES - STATES

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The people who founded these cities were called Sumerians. They came from a region connected to the Persian Gulf. Sumerian myths claimed that their ancestral home was the island of Delmun (today it is Bahrain).

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Most of the townspeople were engaged in farming in the suburban fields, but there were already entire neighborhoods of artisans - potters and blacksmiths. The ruler of the city was en - the high priest of the main city temple, or the leader of the main city militia - lugal. The Sumerians invented cuneiform writing, the wheel, the plow, the sickle and the potter's wheel. We learned how to brew beer, make bricks, build irrigation canals and keep records of government revenues.

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There are hypotheses that the Sumerians had connections with the Ancient Indian civilization, which existed a little later. However, there are many differences in the culture of the Sumerians and the inhabitants of the Indus civilization. Cylinder seal of the Sumerians A feature of the Sumerians was the use of cylinder seals. Such seals were carved from stone and rolled over wet clay, leaving a continuous mark that was repeated all the time.

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The Sumerians are considered the creators lunar calendar. They also created their own timekeeping system. The length of the year in the legendary calendar of Mesopotamia, which consisted of 12 “moons” or “months” lasting 29.5 days each, was only 29.5x12 equal to 354 days, i.e. was significantly shorter than the solar one. The Sumerian priests did not yet know the true length of the year. The obvious discrepancy between the natural and calendar cycles required the introduction of an appropriate correction. It was carried out sporadically by introducing the 13th month into the chronograph and was carried out taking into account the spring flood of rivers associated with the solar cycle in nature. Thus, a calendar gradually took shape, in which the main importance was counting the Moon and bringing it into line with the cycle of the Sun.

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Cities such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Umma, Nippur, Isin have now been studied by scientists. These cities have few archaeological sites. The Sumerians erected stepped altars, which were called ziggurat - a structure typical of the Mesopotamian culture in the form of a stepped pyramid, which had a sacred purpose (sacrifices were made to the gods on its top).

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Of interest is the city of Uruk, in which in the XXVII–XXVI centuries. BC King Gilgamesh reigned. It is to him that the oldest literary monument that has come down to us is dedicated - the epic of Gilgamesh. The cities stood on the banks of canals along which boats sailed. All temples, palaces, and houses were built from clay bricks. There was little wood in Mesopotamia and it had to be obtained in distant mountains.

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The Epic of Gilmesh is written on 12 clay tablets. As the plot develops, Guilmesh's image changes. The fairy-tale hero-hero, boasting of his strength, turns into a man who has learned the tragic brevity of life. The powerful spirit of Guilmesh rebels against the recognition of the inevitability of death; only at the end of his wanderings does the hero begin to understand that immortality can bring him eternal glory to his name.

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AKKADIAN KINGDOM At the end of the 24th century BC. The Sumerian territory was conquered by the North Mesopotamian state of Akkad.

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The Akkadian king Sargon conquered numerous city-states of the Sumerians and incorporated them into his unified empire.

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The Sumerians and Akkadians were different ethnic groups, they had different norms and customs. It was necessary to coordinate them. It was at this time in Mesopotamia that the idea of creating unified general norms that all residents of this state could become familiar with appeared. Thus, the most ancient Akkadian legislation arose.

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However, Sargon's state did not last long and again fell apart into a number of city-states, to which were added the city of Akkad and several similar settlements.

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The independent rulers of this region were to exercise their legitimate authority. Images of such rulers have been preserved, for example, the image of the Lagash king Gudea. The power of Gudea is evidenced by reports that 60 sars (216 thousand) of full-fledged citizens obeyed him (obviously, including residents of neighboring dependent cities), against 10 sars (36 thousand) under Uruinimgin. Gudea merged all the temple households of individual gods into one nationwide (all-Gash) temple household of the god Ningirsu.

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A clear expression of Gudea's centralizing aspirations was his temple-building policy. For this purpose, he introduced new taxes on the entire population and new duties: sometimes even women were involved in construction work. Gudea ruled for about 26 years and was dependent on priests and oracles; it was a real theocracy. During Gudea's reign, Sumerian literature and art flourished. 16 diorite statues of Gudea, clay cylinders with inscriptions, etc. have survived.

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Around 2100 BC King Ur-Nammu ruled in the city of Ur. His reign did not take such a long time (about 15 years); it was under him that the first laws that came down to us were created, which were systemic and not fragmentary in nature - the laws of Ur-Nammu. Fragment of the stele of Ur-Nammu

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The dynasty to which he belonged was called the III Dynasty of Ur, and it managed to unite the entire country under its leadership. But the rise of Ur was temporary, and already in the 20th century a gradual process of the rise of another state began - Babylon (the gate of God).

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The aggressive policy of the rulers of Babylon played a huge role. During the time of King Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC), Babylon united most of Ancient Mesopotamia under its rule. It was under this king that the most famous eastern laws that have survived to this day were adopted - the laws of Hammurabi. Stela with the laws of King Hammurabi.

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In 1595 BC. Babylon was captured by the Hittite tribes. A long and difficult period of decline of Ancient Mesopotamia begins.

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Assyria. Assyria played a major role in the process of unification of Mesopotamia. In the second half of the 8th century BC. The Assyrians managed to create a centralized state - the first imperial-type state in human history.

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Thanks to innovations in technology, it was possible to feed a large army and bureaucracy. Large-scale conquests became possible.

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Let's compare early and late antiquity. Economic relations in early antiquity are characterized by a large role for the community and collective use of land. In the era of late antiquity, the collapse of communal land ownership, the spread of private ownership of land (with the consent of the state), the decline in the role of the community and the growth of individualism mainly occur.

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Forms of the state In early antiquity, a new state (city-state) and a territorial kingdom were characteristic. In the era of late antiquity, an empire was established - a large, relatively centralized state pursuing an active foreign policy.

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Religious differences Early antiquity is a period of polytheism (polytheism), decentralized tribal religions. Late antiquity is a period of monotheism (monotheism), the ethical nature of religion, as well as the emergence of world religions.

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X Early antiquity was characterized by patriarchal slavery (slave is a person), often the temporary nature of slavery. In the era of late antiquity, classical slavery dominated (a slave is a thing). The nature of slavery

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Assyria reaches its cultural peak during the reign of King Ashurbanipal (669–627 BC). Under him, a new Assyrian capital was built - the city of Nineveh. Ashurbanipal B recent years During the reign of Ashurbanipal, the gradual decline of the Assyrian state begins. After a union of numerous cities that were subordinate to Assyria was created, the Assyrian army began to suffer defeats. Nineveh was taken in 612, and the final defeat of Assyria dates back to 609 BC. - Battle of Harran.

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After Assyria as a state ceased to exist, the rise of Babylon began again. NEOBABYLONIAN KINGDOM

ANCIENT MESOPOTHAN YAYA MIA

MAIN STATES OF ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA Sumerian city states (III millennium BC) Akkadian kingdom (XXIV–XXII centuries BC) Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom (XXII–XX centuries BC) Old Babylonian kingdom ( XIX–XVI centuries BC)

SUMERIAN CITIES - STATES At the turn of the 4th–3rd millennium BC. In the southern part of Mesopotamia, separate city-states arise. They resembled Egyptian nomes; the population of the cities did not exceed several tens of thousands of people.

There are hypotheses that the Sumerians had connections with the Ancient Indian civilization, which existed a little later. However, there are many differences in the culture of the Sumerians and the inhabitants of the Indus civilization. A feature of the Sumerians was the use of cylinder seals. Such seals were carved from stone and rolled over damp clay, leaving a continuous mark that was repeated all the time. Sumerian cylinder seal

The Sumerians are considered the creators of the lunar calendar. They also created their own timekeeping system. The length of the year in the legendary calendar of Mesopotamia, which consisted of 12 “moons” or “months” lasting 29.5 days each, was only 29.5x12 equal to 354 days, i.e. was significantly shorter than the solar one. The Sumerian priests did not yet know the true length of the year. The obvious discrepancy between the natural and calendar cycles required the introduction of an appropriate correction. It was carried out sporadically by introducing the 13th month into the chronograph and was carried out taking into account the spring flood of rivers associated with the solar cycle in nature.

The cities stood on the banks of canals along which boats sailed. All temples, palaces, and houses were built from clay bricks. There was little wood in Mesopotamia and it had to be obtained in distant mountains. Of interest is the city of Uruk, in which in the XXVII–XXVI centuries. BC King Gilgamesh reigned. It is to him that the oldest literary monument that has come down to us is dedicated - the epic of Gilgamesh.

AKKADIAN KINGDOM At the end of the 24th century BC. The territory of the Sumerians was conquered by the Amish state of Akkad.

The Akkadian king Sargon conquered numerous city-states of the Sumerians and incorporated them into his unified empire.

However, Sargon's state did not last long and again fell apart into a number of city-states, to which were added the city of Akkad and several similar settlements.

Around 2100 BC King Ur-Nammu ruled in the city of Ur. His reign did not take so long (about 15 years); it was under him that the first laws that came down to us were created, which were systemic and not fragmentary in nature - the laws of Ur-Fragment of the Ur-Nammu stele

The dynasty to which he belonged was called the III Dynasty of Ur, and it managed to unite the entire country under its leadership. But the rise of Ur was temporary, and already in the 20th century, a gradual process of the rise of another state began - Babylon (the gate of God).

The aggressive policy of the rulers of Babylon played a huge role. During the time of King Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC), Babylon united most of Ancient Mesopotamia under its rule. It was under this king that the most famous eastern laws were adopted, the surviving Stele with the laws of King Hammurabi

In 1595 BC. Babylon was captured by the Hittite tribes. A long and difficult period of decline of Ancient Mesopotamia begins.

Thanks to innovations in technology, it was possible to feed a large army and bureaucracy. Large-scale conquests became possible.

Character X of slavery Early antiquity was characterized by patriarchal slavery (slave is a person), often the temporary nature of slavery. In the era of late antiquity, classical slavery dominated (a slave is a thing).

Assyria reaches its cultural peak during the reign of King Ashurbanipal (669–627 BC). Under him, a new Assyrian capital was built - the city of Nineveh. In the last years of Ashurbanipal's reign, the gradual decline of the Assyrian state began. After a union of numerous cities that were subordinate to Assyria was created, the Assyrian army began to suffer defeats. In 612, Nineveh was taken, and the final Ashurbanip al

Slide 2: Geographical environment

Mesopotamia (Mezhdurechye, Mesopotamia) - between the river. Euphrates and r. Tigris (modern Iraq) The rivers changed direction several times; in ancient times they flowed into the Persian Gulf separately The lower reaches of the rivers are swampy  the south of Mesopotamia was considered cursed The main material is clay (stone and wood are luxury). Activities: agriculture, cattle breeding (territories less suitable for agriculture than in Egypt) River navigation  Mesopotamia is the center of caravan routes running through the Ancient East. The territory was unprotected  settlement was free

Slide 3: Population

First permanent population: Sumerians. Earlier, writing appeared and the proto-state system of the Akkadians (East Semitic group) developed. We learned a number of achievements of Sumerian culture. Gutians (nomads, occupied a large part of Mesopotamia in the 22nd century BC) Amorites (West Semitic tribes, penetrated into the 19th century BC  forced out by the Kassites into Syria and Lower Mesopotamia) Kassites (established rule in the 16th century . BC) Arameans (Semitic tribes, especially active since the 11th century) Assyrians (dialect of the Akkadian language + mixing with Amorites and Arameans, including adoption of the Aramaic language) Jews (XIII-XII centuries BC - from Assyria + VI century BC - “Babylonian captivity”) Chaldeans (Semitic tribes, southern Mesopotamia)

Slide 4: Sumerian problem

Where is the ancestral home of the Sumerians: Arabia (W.K. Loftus), Elam = Iranian Plateau (G. Frankfort, E. Perkins), Southern Mesopotamia (since the Persian Gulf was formed in the 8th millennium BC - J. M. Lis and N. L. Folken; perhaps there was an oasis there); Transnistria (A.G. Kifishin)

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Robert Koldewey (archaeologist, Germany) - the first to excavate Ancient Babylon (excavations 1899-1917) Henry Rawlinson (archaeologist, linguist, Great Britain) - the first to decipher Persian cuneiform (1835-1853) based on the Behistun inscription

Slide 6: Behistun inscription

Slide 7: Cuneiform clay tablet

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Austin Henry Layard Rassam Hormuz One of the main archaeological sensations is the excavation of O.G. Layard (Great Britain) and R. Hormuz (Turkey) of the library of Ashurbanipal, which contained the “Epic of Gilgamesh”

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Igor Mikhailovich Dyakonov - the largest Soviet Assyrologist Vasily Vasilyevich Struve - the largest specialist on the early dynastic period Nikolai Mikhailovich Nikolsky - son of M.V. Nikolsky (founder of Russian Assyrology), leading biblical scholar, specialist in Mesopotamia

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Periodization of the history of Ancient Mesopotamia Early Dynastic (Sumerian) period: XXVIII-XXVII centuries. BC – hegemony of Kish XXVII-XVI centuries. BC – hegemony of Uruk  Ur XXVI-XXIV centuries. BC – intensification of the struggle of cities Power of Sargon of Akkad + Reign of the III dynasty of Ur (XXIV-XXI centuries BC) Transitional period (XXI-XIX centuries BC) Old Assyrian period (XX-XIV centuries BC) BC) Old Babylonian period (XIX-XVI centuries BC) Middle Babylonian (Kassite) period (XVI-X centuries BC) Middle Assyrian period (XIV-X centuries BC) New Assyrian period (X-VII centuries BC) Neo-Babylonian period (VII-VI centuries BC)

Slide 11: Sumerian-Akkadian civilization

Slide 12: Foundation of Civilization

VI millennium BC – emergence of primitive irrigation, 5th millennium BC. – the first urban-type settlements (Ur, Uruk, Eridu) Formation of statehood – the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC: the first city-states (Kish, Ur, Uruk, Lagash) Numerous tribal remnants were preserved in the cities The appearance of military squads in cities; social stratification (archaeological data) The state is headed by a military leader (lugal), or a king who emerged from the priests (ensi); first ruling dynasties Most of the cities were founded by the Sumerians First hegemon - Kish (from c. 2800)  Uruk (time of Gilgamesh)  Ur (I dynasty, c. 2500)

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Slide 14: Gilgamesh

ensi of Sumerian Uruk (late XXVII - early XXVI centuries BC). In the fight against the king of Kish, Agha achieved the liberation of Uruk from Kish hegemony. Under Gilgamesh and his successors, Uruk had the largest military detachments, its rulers erected buildings in Lagash, Nippur and other cities, later he himself was deified and glorified in the monument of ancient Eastern literature - the epic “On Who Has Seen Everything” (= “The Epic of Gilgamesh”) - the tale of the journey of Gilgamesh and his semi-wild friend Enkidu. Gilgamesh in the epic is an adventurer, brave, vain and thirsty for immortality.

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Gilgamesh defeats a monstrous bull sent by the goddess Ishtar for refusing to share his love with her.

Slide 16: Sumerian civilization

The invention of writing (cuneiform) on clay tablets, which the Phoenicians first borrowed and based on it created their own writing, consisting of 22 consonant letters, writing was borrowed from the Phoenicians by the Greeks, who added vowels. The Latin language was largely inspired by Greek, and many modern European languages are based on Latin. Discovery of copper Temple architecture: a special type of temple appeared - the ziggurat - a temple in the form of a stepped pyramid

Slide 17: Cuneiform

Slide 18: The Rise of Ur (XXVI-XXV centuries)

From X X VI century. BC – trends towards the unification of cities. Needs: creation of a unified irrigation system, repelling the onslaught of nomads After the death of Gilgamesh, Ur rises, where the First Dynasty rules. Under it, the power of the ruler is significantly strengthened due to the subordination of the temple economy to him and the promotion of the rulers' wives to the positions of high priestesses. “Great mines of death” - royal tombs, burials of kings and high priestesses were accompanied by numerous sacrifices (chariots, jewelry, daggers, spears, helmets, tools, items made of gold, silver, copper, household items), including human ones (warriors, courtiers, maids)

Slide 19: The struggle between Lagash and Umma

In the XXIV century. Serious competition to Uru came from Lagash, where from the 26th century. BC e. the dynasty founded by Ur-Nanshe began to rule  The rulers of Ur were forced to cede hegemony to Lagash. Lagash reached its greatest power under his grandson Eanatum, who subjugated almost all of Sumer, including such large cities as Umma, Kish, Uruk, Larsa, and defeated neighboring Elam. The victory of Lagash in this war was immortalized on the famous “Stele of Kites”, where depicts the procession of the Lagash army and the corpses of defeated enemies tormented by kites (3,600 soldiers were exterminated). A document was found in Umma recording the conditions of peace and the boundaries between the warring states - the oldest international treaty. Another ruler of Lagash, Urukagina (2318-2312 BC), relaxed the duties of the population and clergy, recording his reforms - one of the first written recordings of legal norms. However, the Umma under the ruler Lugalzagesi recovered and defeated Lagash  the desolation of Lagash (reflected in the “Lament for Urukagin”) Lugalzagesi managed to create a unification of Sumerian city-states for a quarter of a century with the capital, apparently, in Uruk.

Slide 20: Description of Urukagina's reforms (2319-2311)

Cone plate describing reforms

Slide 21: Akkadian Empire (c. 2316-2137)

In the XV-XIV centuries. BC serious climatic changes are occurring in the territory of Mesopotamia: the Tigris and Euphrates change their course  old centers are falling into disrepair, the network of irrigation canals is expanding and new cities are gaining importance (Babylon Dilbat, Marad, Push); advantage in new conditions at the city of Akkad (crossing both rivers  control over them)  King Sargon of Akkad began the conquest of the territories of Mesopotamia  defeated the ruler of Uruk Lugalzagesi (c. 2311 BC)  conquered most of Sumer  creation empire, the Akkadians adopted Sumerian culture, religion, and writing.

Slide 22: Despotism in the empire of Sargon (2316-2261)

The unlimited power of the ruler The ruler is the owner of all lands The ruler is the supreme commander in chief The divine origin of the rulers The ruler is the supreme judge The ruler is the supreme collector of all taxes Power was exercised by a huge bureaucratic apparatus that collected taxes, monitored agricultural work and the state of the irrigation system King Sargon first formed a state with monarchical form of government that lasted 200 years. Under Sargon, a time measurement system was introduced: there are 60 minutes in an hour, 60 seconds in a minute, and a 7-day week was introduced. Mathematical knowledge developed rapidly. Sargon of Akkad

Slide 23: Sargonids (2261-2137)

Sargon's son Rimuzh (2261-2252) suppressed the main centers of separatism, made 3 campaigns against the South, exterminated the clan nobility in the cities, but he himself fell victim to a conspiracy. Rimuzh's policy was continued by his brother Manishtush (2252-2237): he introduced taxes on the temple economy, expansion royal land fund, support for the priesthood (gifts and slaves + tax exemption). Also died as a result of a conspiracy Rise of the Akkadian Empire under Manishtushu's son Naram-Suen (2236-2200 BC): suppression of internal discontent; Instead of ensi, he puts sons and bureaucracy in the cities (ensi  officials). Reliance on priesthood, construction of temples  proclaimed “the god of Akkad.” Active policy of conquest  “king of the four countries of the world.” Stele of Naram-Suen from Susa. Victory of the king over the Lullubey Obelisk of Manishtushu

Slide 24: Akkadian Empire under Naram-Suen

Slide 25: Invasion of the Kutians (2137)

In 2137, the Akkadian kingdom from the north and east was captured by the nomadic Gutians  huge tribute + cities were ruled by governors (sukkali) Sometimes the Kutians retained local rulers, the most famous is Gudea (ensi of Lagash in 2142-2116). launched extensive temple construction, partially returned to traditions (connection of ensi with the temple economy, the council of elders and the people's assembly, which “by the will of the gods” elected ensi) + restoration of irrigation + extensive trade relations For about a hundred years, the Kutians maintained political dominance over Mesopotamia. In 2109, an uprising broke out against the Gutians led by the fisherman Utuhengal ( leader of Uruk)  after his death, his work was continued by the king of Ur Ur-Nammu, who established power over Mesopotamia and laid the foundation for the III dynasty of Ur Gudea (2142-2116)

Slide 26: Kingdom of the III Dynasty of Ur (2112-2003 BC)

Classic despotic state; religious reinforcement of the royal power, starting with Shulga (2093-2047), divine honors to the king, dependence of the priesthood on the king. The management system in the newly created state was rebuilt: the aristocracy was removed from power  bureaucracy, a developed bureaucratic apparatus. All communities pay taxes and participate in labor. Strict repressive system (almost all crimes are subject to death penalty); Shulga's Laws are one of the oldest legal codes.

Slide 27: Pantheon of the main Sumerian-Akkadian gods

An is the god of the sky and the father of the Gods, the guardian of the city of Uruk. His wife is the goddess Ki (earth). Their children: Enlil (Ellil) - king of the gods, god of air, fertility and storms; ruler of the human world, guardian of the city of Nippur. His son Nanna is the god of the Moon, guardian of the city of Ur. Her son: Shamash (Utu) - patron of the sun, guardian of the city of Larsa Adad (Ishkur) - god of thunder, storm and wind; warrior god; sends fruitful rains and destructive storms; guardian of the city of Karkar Ishtar (Inanna) - goddess of women and fertility; guardian of the city of Uruk Marduk (Amarutu) - god of wisdom, healing, magical art, irrigation, giver of peace and prosperity; the guardian of the city of Babylon Enki - the god of wisdom, culture (both art and material - agriculture, crafts, gardening) the owner of the world ocean of underground waters Abzu; Guardian of Eridu

Slide 28: Ziggurat in Ur (Ur-Namu)

Slide 29: Economic development

Economic stability and prosperity until the 21st century. BC (collapse of the kingdom) Construction of an irrigation system (common to all Mesopotamia) Development of bronze The bulk of the lands are the royal land fund (lands of local rulers, temples + conquered lands)

Slide 30: Social system

The dominant position is slave owners from among the serving and clan nobility, the priesthood and the community elite. Mass destruction of free community members, recruiting them as farm laborers Numerical increase in the slave class, incl. at the expense of prisoners of war; brutal exploitation of state slaves (“gurushas”). Extensive bureaucracy. Developed system of supervision, control, accounting Often enslavement of free community members for debts, sale of daughters into slavery, temporary slavery

Slide 31: Laws of Ur-Nammu (Laws of Shulga)

Dated ca. 2104-2095 BC; discovered during excavations of Nippur in 1899-1900; compiled by King Ur-Nammu (2112-2094) or his son King Shulgi (2094 - 2046) An indication of the divine essence of royal power. It talks about how the “disorders” were corrected - the introduction of a unified system of measures, construction work, freedom to enter into unequal marriages norms on punishment for crimes against life and freedom, causing bodily harm, norms of family law (divorce, inheritance), punishment for perjury, false denunciation, escape of slaves; regulation of lease, storage, contract, hiring, borrowing of money and grain; sale and rental of housing Casuistry; the "if... then..." formula, punishments other than murder and other serious crimes were mainly limited to fines. Laws of Ur-Nammu in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum

Slide 32: Kingdom of the III Dynasty of Ur under Shulgi

Slide 33: Collapse of the Kingdom of the Third Dynasty of Ur (2003)

The onslaught of the Amorites from the west and east; capture of cities, disruption of economic life in lands captured by the Amorites, connections between regions and the capital were cut, disruption of food supplies + loss of strategically important cities (Issin, Eshnuna) War in Elam  the Elamites attacked the weakened Ur, captured the statues of the gods and took the latter captive to Elam representative of the royal dynasty of Ibbi-Suen (2003 BC). The death of the kingdom of Sumer and Akkad became the theme of laments (“Lament for the Destruction of Ur”). The throne was taken by King Issin Ishbi-Erra (the official who betrayed Ibbi-Suen) The Euphrates changes direction. Since the 18th century BC new city-states are formed  fight each other for power  rise of Babylon (inhabited by Amorites)

Slide 34: Kingdom of Babylon

Slide 35: The Rise of Babylon (1759)

During the struggle between the city-states, the rise of two allies - Zimri-Lima (Mari) and Hamurappi (Babylon) Babylon united southern and middle Mesopotamia, Mari - northern Mesopotamia  the union was soon broken  Hamurappi in 1761 BC . attacked Mari and captured the city: he left Zimri-Lim on the throne of Mari as a governor. But soon Zimri-Lim rebelled against Hammurabi  Hammurappi again took the city, tore down its walls and burned the palace of Zimri-Lim (c. 1759). Assyria recognized the rule of Babylon

Slide 36: Old Babylonian Kingdom (c. 2003-1595)

Rule of the Amorite dynasty; classical despotism; royal lands - 30-50%; The king's reliance on the army and the powerful bureaucratic apparatus of the elite - warriors, officials and tamkars (large trading agents); further – muskenums (worked on the king’s land); The bulk of the population are avilums (free community members). Stratification of small producers The lowest class is vardum (slaves). Sources: war, sale, bondage, crimes. Categories: palace and owner. The average family has 2-5 slaves, the rich one has several dozen. Patriarchal slavery

Slide 37: Hamurappi's transformations (1792-1750)

the establishment of a bureaucratic apparatus that controlled all areas of production; Military reform: people's militia  standing army expansion of acreage, gardening; expansion of the irrigation network throughout the country (strict supervision of officials over it), construction of canals Law reform: Hamurappi Laws; the first civilization in which a legal system was developed and created King Hamurappi (1792-1750)

Slide 38: Laws of Hamurappi (1750s)

Compiled and recorded on a huge stone slab (1792-1750 BC). The laws of Hammurabi contained 282 laws. The principle of talion: “An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.” Protection of the property of the king, temple, community members and royal people + property received for service Graduation of victims and violators Regulation of the lease of fields and gardens, commercial transactions, marriage and divorce Punishments for negligence of irrigation structures; responsibility for handicraft products Protection from the arbitrariness of moneylenders (20% for borrowed silver, 33% for grain loans); limitation of debt bondage to 3 years Death penalty in 31 cases, the rest - fines, flogging, self-mutilation Use of ordeals Laws of Hamurappi in the Louvre

Slide 39: Etemenanki Ziggurat (Tower of Babel)

Slide 40: Fall of the Old Babylonian Kingdom (1595)

Hamurappi's policies were continued by his son Samsuiluna (1749-1712). However, already under him, various outlying areas rebelled  suppression Gradually weakening of the dynasty, disintegration of the army, active penetration of the Kassites (Syrian Desert) and Hurrians (northwest)  cut off from the main trade routes to Asia Minor and the Eastern Mediterranean by the Hittite invasion of Babylonia in 1595. BC e.  capture and destruction of Babylon, removal of the precious statue of Marduk  fall of the First Dynasty of Babylon  Babylonia conquered by the Kassites

Slide 41: Kassite dynasty (1595-1157)

Stagnation in the economy, decrease in the marketability of the economy and the influx of slaves Return to tribal relations, strengthening of rural communities Enrichment of the Kassite clan nobility (+ receipt of immunity letters), creation of large private land ownership Gradual assimilation of the Kassites with the Babylonians; adoption of Babylonian culture and religion by the Kassites, construction of temples and ziggurats Peaceful relations with Egypt Campaigns on the territory of Iran The apogee of power - the reign of Burna-Buriash II (1376-1347) Wars with neighbors. In the second quarter of the 12th century. BC The Elamites occupied Babylonia. OK. 1157 BC The last Kassite king was overthrown.

Slide 42: Geopolitical changes

The Arameans migrate from the territory of Syria and Arabia  displace the Akkadians in Mesopotamia; Aramaic is the language of interethnic communication The rise of Elam in the South Strengthening the states of Mittani, Assyria and the Hittite kingdom in the north The emergence of the state of Urartu (Armenian Highlands) Subjects of dispute - 1) the territory of Syria, Phenicia and caravan routes; 2) Southern Mesopotamia, which became suitable for agriculture and was necessary for both Babylon and Elam.

Slide 43: Assyrian power

Slide 44: The Rise of Ashur

The center of Assyrian culture is the city of Ashur. Language – Akkadian. The concept of “Old Assyrian period” is artificial, because At that time Assyria did not yet exist. Ashur was part of the Akkadian Empire and the Kingdom of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Around 1970 BC. e. power passes to the native Ashurians. Rapid growth trade and production. After the Amorite invasion in 1807 B.C. Ashur entered the power of Shamshi-Adad I. The king placed his son in the city. Old Assyrian writing was abolished  Babylonian In the middle of the 18th century BC. e. the power of Shamshi-Adad collapsed and Ashur was conquered by King Hammurabi. Around 1720 BC e. a ruler from the family of the Amorite leader Shamshi-Adad restored independence.

Slide 45: Foundation of the Assyrian Kingdom

During the reign of Adad-nirari I (1307-1274), the role of the city council declined and the influence of the king continued to grow. The ruler appropriated the title “king of multitudes” and became the founder of the Assyrian state, formed a strong army + rebuilt the capital Ashur. He defeated the Kutians and Lulumeis and captured the state of Mittani. In the 13th century BC under King Shalmaneser I (1274-1245), the formation of a centralized state was completed in Assyria + brutal predatory raids for the purpose of intimidation. Mines were discovered in the mountains of Assyria  supplying the army  the first wave of Assyrian conquests. Babylonia was the first to suffer  Mitanni (led to destruction in 1250 BC) Adad-nirari I

Slide 46: “Middle Assyrian laws”

14 tables and fragments of the laws of casuistry, probably were a collection of the department. decrees, cases from judicial practice Compared to the laws of Hammurabi, Assyrian laws are much more severe. Disenfranchised position of debtors and women. After marriage, they passed into the full power of their husband, and the law did not protect them from arbitrariness on his part. The basis is a large family, but the strengthening of private property. trends and relations of enslavement (“adoption”, “revival”, i.e. salvation from starvation, debt bondage and sale into slavery of a family member). The Tsar breaks away from the communal “new” oligarchy and stands above it

Slide 47: The cruelty of Assyrian laws

the laws were exceptionally cruel, providing for executions and torture in order to extract confessions from the accused. Some criminals were beheaded, others were impaled, and others were skinned. The corpses of those executed were thrown out to be eaten by wild animals. punishments for “softer” crimes were almost identical: cutting off the nose and ears, castration for men, tearing out nipples for women, etc. For relatively minor crimes, the perpetrators had their eyes gouged out, their hands cut off... the part of these laws that has come down to us is devoted mainly to the position of women in the family. She was literally in the “hands of her husband”, lived, in essence, in the position of a slave and had no right to family property... It follows from it that the Assyrian family was based on the unlimited power of the father; Assyrian legislation did not limit the rights of the usurer to exploit an unpaid debtor. The latter was allowed to beat, pluck his hair, mutilate

Slide 48: Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244 - 1207)

Under King Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1207) in 1223 BC. the Assyrians temporarily conquered the Babylonian kingdom (until 1215 BC), took the Babylonian king captive, took trophies, a statue of Marduk  the Assyrian ruler took the title “king of Sumer and Akkad” Tukulti-Ninurta I moved his residence to a specially built 3 km northeast of Ashur, the new city of Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. Few high-ranking courtiers (usually eunuchs) had personal access to the king. Extremely strict regulations in the palace chambers  At the city council the king is declared crazy, deposed and killed Babylon sends a protege  Assyria is deprived of all possessions

Slide 49: Tiglath-pileser I (1114-1076)

Under Tiglath-pileser I (1114-1076), Assyria continued its policy of conquest and regained its former power ca. 30 campaigns to the west: the capture of Northern Syria and Northern Phenicia, part of Asia Minor. As a sign of triumph, Tiglath-pileser I made a demonstrative exit to the Mediterranean Sea on Phoenician ships. New victories over Nairi (north) Sending gifts from Egypt Recapture of Babylon  Egypt and Babylonia united  defeated Assyria and returned it to its former borders After the death of Tiglath-pileser I, Assyria underwent expansion and further resettlement of the Arameans  settled and mixed with the Assyrians  social decline economic and political life Assyria, the end of the Middle Assyrian period.

Slide 50: Neo-Assyrian kingdom (X-VIII centuries BC)

In the 10th century BC a new wave of Assyrian conquests began, resulting in the “second rise” of Assyria in the 9th century. BC However, at the end of the 9th century. the country fell again in the 8th century. BC – a new revival of Assyria  the period of heyday of the Assyrian power and dominance over the entire Middle East. Changing the goal: robbery  conquest. Cruel measures remained Campaigns in all directions Expansion of the territory of Assyria from the 10th century. BC: Babylon, Urartu, Palestine, Jordan, Israel

Slide 51: “Second Rise” of Assyria (IX century BC)

The restoration of the Assyrian state began under King Adad-nirari II (912-891), who put an end to the unrest and strengthened the capital Ashur. Reason for activation foreign policy– lack of raw materials (metals, wood)  campaigns for the purpose of robbery and withdrawal of labor + mastery of trade routes Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC): successful wars with Nairi, Median tribes (east of the Tigris). Active expansion into the eastern Mediterranean, capturing important caravan routes of the North. Syria. Shalmaneser III (son, 859-824 BC): successful wars with Urartu (the capital was captured, the king fled), the creation of the principality of Bit-Adini (in the west), Babylon recognized the supreme power of Assyria. A grandiose battle with the Damascus kingdom (ally - Egypt) near the city of Karkar on the river. Orontes (853 BC): Despite the victory, Damascus was not taken. In 840, a new campaign and siege of Damascus (the kingdom was weakened). Tribute from Phenicia and Israel. Extensive construction in Ashur and Nimrud (new capital). At the end of the century - the decline of Assyria again (epidemics, crop failures, internal struggle)

Slide 52

Monolith from Carkh with the image of Shalmaneser III, telling about the Battle of Karkar 853 BC. Ritual meeting of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II after a successful hunt (Louvre)

Slide 53: The cruelty of the Assyrians

This is how Ashurnasirpal II (884-859 BC) describes his campaign in the country of Urartu (modern Armenia): “I went out... to the royal city of Aram Urartu... I fought a strong battle in the mountains, I defeated 3,400 warriors with my weapons, like Adad, I rained down the cloud over it, I stained the mountain with their blood... In my mighty power, like a tour, I crushed the country, turned the settlements into ruins and burned them with fire. The city of Arzashna and the settlements around it were captured, destroyed and burned with fire. I made piles of heads in front of the city gates. I threw some of the people alive into heaps, and impaled others around the heaps.”

Slide 54

Ashurnasirpal II About the defeat of the city of Sudi: “I ordered the construction of a wall in front of the Great Gate of the city; I ordered the skin of the leaders of the uprising to be flayed and covered the wall with this skin. I ordered some of them to be walled up in the wall; others were crucified on a cross or impaled along the wall. I ordered many of them to be skinned in my presence and covered the wall with this skin. I ordered crowns to be made from their heads, and garlands from their pierced bodies. I ordered Akiabakh (king) to be taken to Ninua (Nineveh) and there I flayed his skin, which I hung on the wall of Ninua.”

Slide 55: Tiglath-pileser III (745-727)

Came to power as a result of the civil war of 746-745. (caused by dissatisfaction with the defeat from Urartu). The implementation of administrative and military reforms made it possible to switch to a policy of conquest  The greatest expansion of territories: successful campaigns against Urartu and the final defeat of its tribes (738, 735), campaigns against Media (737), defeat of the coalition of the Damascus and Israelite kingdoms (734-732), conquest Damascus and Palestine Subjugation of Mesopotamia, coronation in Babylon (729) systematic resettlement of peoples for their mixing, oblivion of old traditions, separation from former cults and homeland, development of devastated and new territories

Slide 56: Reforms of Tiglath-pileser III

administrative: centralization of power, division into smaller governorships, expansion of the responsibility of local commanders (taxes, military contingent, command) and the abolition of immunity certificates for them. In place of the king's henchmen ( eunuchs). Extension of the provincial system to conquered territories. military: the militia on the principle of self-equipment was replaced by a standing army “tsar’s regiment” (based on conscription) on state supply. Division by types of troops, uniform weapons, growth in the size of the army (at the expense of the poor and middle strata). The use of cavalry and chariots + military vehicles and rams during the siege of cities. Improving the art of fortification. Involvement of engineering and auxiliary units, scribes, priests, musicians. Extensive reconnaissance apparatus. The army numbered up to 120 thousand people.

Slide 57: Shalmaneser V (727-722)

son of Tiglath-pileser III limitation of the influence of traders and priesthood, abolition of the privileges and immunities of self-governing trading cities in Assyria (Ashur, Harran) and Babylonia (Babylon, Sippar, Nippur, Uruk) + temples uprising in Tire (Phenicia) + in 724 BC. e. Israeli king Hosea entered into an alliance with Egypt and refused to pay tribute  campaign against Israel  Hosea was captured and sent to Nineveh. Siege of the Israeli capital Samaria. aggravation of internal struggle between the trade-priestly and military parties  was killed as a result of a conspiracy

Slide 58: Sargon II (722-705)

maintained a balance between the military and trade-priestly parties, the return of privileges to the temples of Assyria and Babylonia, the defeat of the Kingdom of Israel, the capture of Samaria, the inhabitants were resettled to new places, the attack on Urartu (714)  leaves the historical arena. clashes with the Cimmerian nomads New territories in Media Subjugation of the city of Karchemish Collision with Egypt a new capital was founded - the residence of the king, the city of Dur-Sharrukin (on the Tigris River)

Slide 59: Palace of Sargon II in Dur Sharrukin

Slide 60: Sennacherib (705-681)

Son of Sargon II, representative of the military party, constant suppression of uprisings in the conquered territories. Intense struggle with the Chaldeans (from the 9th century BC they firmly occupied the southern part of Babylonia) and the ruler of Babylon, Marduk-apla-iddin II (enlisted the support of allies - the Chaldeans and Elam )  defeat of the allies at the Battle of Halul (691 BC)  in 689 BC Sennacherib took Babylon by storm, destroyed it and flooded it. Successful campaigns to the west, the Kingdom of Judah recognized the power of Assyria  active opposition from Egypt  Assyria approached the border of Egypt escalation of internal political struggle at the end of the reign  killed as a result of a conspiracy in 681 BC.

Slide 61

Sennacherib is an Assyrian king, whose historical portrait was reflected in a very multifaceted way in his own chronicles, in the biblical Books of Kings and the Books of Chronicles, in the prophetic book of Isaiah, in the Aramaic “Tale of the Wise Ahikar” and its multilingual versions, in ancient authors - Herodotus, Joseph Flavius and finally found a second life in the folklore of modern Assyrians.

Slide 62

Slide 63: Esarhaddon (681 - 669)

the youngest son of Sennacherib, stabilized the internal position, combining the interests of the military and trade-priestly groups, restored the destroyed Babylon. Their privileges were returned to Babylonian cities and temples, and new taxes were introduced in favor of the temples. Campaigns against the Cimmerians (679 BC) and Arabs, Shupriya (near Urartu, 673-672 BC), consolidation of possessions in Media, suppression of the uprising in Sidon (Phenicia) Conquest of Egypt (671 BC), adoption of the title of pharaoh. Intense struggle between the heirs: Ashurbanipal (military) and Shamash-shum-ukin (trade-priestly) In 670 BC. e. Egypt rebelled + formed a coalition (Chaldeans, Medes) + supported the rebel tribes  Esarhaddon went there with a punitive expedition  died on the way

Slide 64: Assyrian Empire under Esarhaddon

Slide 65: Ashurbanipal (669-627)

educated, knew the Sumerian and Akkadian languages, understood literature, architecture, mathematics, astronomy. Construction of the luxurious Northern Palace in Nineveh, grandiose construction in the capital itself, large-scale restoration of temples throughout the country. Set the goal of creating a single state and a single cultural base. Attempts to restore former power, because after Esarhaddon, Egypt, Babylonia, and Media fell away from the empire + Lydia (Asia Minor) appeared on the periphery

Slide 66: Stages of Ashurbanipal's foreign policy

First (669-654): strong dominance of Assyria in the Middle East, maintaining the status of a superpower. Constant campaigns in rebellious Egypt, merciless suppression of protests in cities and Palestinian kingdoms (Judea, Moab, Edom, Ammon). Revolt of the Median rulers, raids from Urartu and Manna. Fight against Elam (in alliance with the Chaldeans and Arameans of Southern Mesopotamia). By the end of the period, Egypt finally fell away (655 BC). Second (654-627): growing political crisis. Widespread uprisings of conquered peoples in 652-648. Rebellion of Ashurbanipal's brother - Shamashshum-ukin, king of Babylonia  allies: Elam, Chaldean-Aramaic principalities, Arabs, Lydia, Egypt, Media, Phenicia. The uprising was brutally suppressed, because disunity of allies + support of the Scythians and Cimmerians. In 648 BC. Babylon was taken Shamashshum-ukina set fire to the palace and threw himself into the fire In 642-640. BC control over the Arab principalities was restored, and in 639 BC. - Elam.

Slide 67: Assyria under Ashurbanipal (654 BC)

Slide 68

Slide 69: Library of Ashurbanipal

In Nineveh, Ashurbanipal created the most extensive library in the Ancient East + the first library of Assyria. There were more than 30,000 clay tablets: a collection of mythological and literary works, oracles, prayers and magical formulas, medical and mathematical texts, geographical and botanical reference books, dictionaries, etc. He left detailed and colorfully written chronicles.

One of the most ancient states of Mesopotamia (existed for about 25 centuries, from the time of the creation of writing to the conquest of Babylon by the Persians in 539 BC), a historical and geographical region in the Middle East, located in the valley of the two great rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Modern states, including the lands of Mesopotamia, Iraq, Syria, Türkiye. In the scientific literature there are alternative designations for the region Mesopotamia and Mesopotamia, which have different meanings. Mesopotamia is home to one of the oldest civilizations in human history, Ancient Mesopotamia.

“Mesopotamia” is a toponym of ancient Greek origin, translated as “country/land between two rivers”, “interfluve”. The term arose when Alexander the Great created a satrapy with that name as part of his state. The new administrative-territorial unit was formed from the lands of the Achaemenid satrapies, primarily Babylonia and, probably, Zarechye. Lower Mesopotamia in the most ancient written sources was called “Sumer and Akkad”; it was divided into two parts: Sumer proper in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates and Akkad upstream. Subsequently, the name “Babylonia” spread to the region of Akkad and part of Sumer; the other part of Sumer and the new lands formed as a result of the retreat of the waters of the Persian Gulf began to be referred to as “Primorye”, and from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Chaldea; Since late antiquity, the name “Babylonia” became a general designation for these lands. In the Middle Ages, the Arabic name for Lower Mesopotamia “Iraq” was established. Etymology

Geography Mesopotamia is bounded in the north by the Armenian Plateau, in the south by the Persian Gulf, in the west by the Arabian Platform, and in the east by the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. Sometimes Greater Mesopotamia is distinguished, covering the entire modern basin of the Tigris, Euphrates and Karun. Within the region there are two regions: Northern and Southern Mesopotamia; the conditional border between them runs along the line of the cities of Hit Samarra. Mesopotamia is rocky, sandy plain, sloping to the south. The main rivers are the Euphrates, Tigris and their tributaries Khabur and Balikh, Greater and Lesser Zab, Diyala. The main products are oil and ink nuts. Olives were cultivated, and the date palm was common in some places. Animals include lions, gazelles, and ostriches. Euphrates River Ruins on the Tigris River

Prehistoric cultures. Mesopotamia demonstrates not only how and why the historical period itself arises, but also what happened in the critical period that preceded it. Man discovered a direct connection between sowing and harvesting ca. 12 thousand years ago. The Middle East is littered with traces of early agricultural settlements. One of the oldest villages discovered in the foothills of Kurdistan. The Jarmo settlement east of Kirkuk is an example of the application of primitive farming methods. The next stage is represented at Hassoun near Mosul by architectural structures and pottery. The Hassunan stage was replaced by the rapidly developing Halaf stage, which received its name from the settlement on Kabur, one of the largest tributaries of the Euphrates. Settlement of Jarmo

Construction technology has also taken a step forward. Figures of people and animals were made from clay and stone. People wore not only beads and pendants, but also stamp seals. The Halaf culture is of particular interest due to the vastness of the territory over which it was distributed - from Lake Van and northern Syria to the central part of Mesopotamia, the environs of modern Kirkuk. Towards the end of the Khalaf stage, probably from the east, carriers of another culture appeared, which over time spread across the western part of Asia from the interior of Iran to the Mediterranean coast. This culture is Obeid (Ubeid), got its name from a small hill in Lower Mesopotamia near the ancient city of Ur. This period saw significant changes in many areas, especially in architecture, as evidenced by the buildings at Eridu in southern Mesopotamia and at Tepe Gavre in the north. From that time on, the south became the center of the development of metallurgy, the emergence and development of cylinder seals, the emergence of markets and the creation of writing. ALABASTER FIGURINE OF A WOMAN from the Temple of Ishtar.

Traditional Dictionary of Historical Mesopotamia in Part geographical names and cultural terms developed on the basis various languages. Many toponyms have survived to this day. Among them are the names of the Tigris and Euphrates and most ancient cities. The words "carpenter" and "chair", used in the Sumerian and Akkadian languages, still function in Semitic languages to this day. The names of some plants - cassia, caraway, crocus, hyssop, myrtle, spikenard, saffron and others - go back to the prehistoric stage and demonstrate striking cultural continuity.

During the first three quarters of the 3rd millennium BC. The South occupied a leading place in the history of Mesopotamia. In the geologically youngest part of the valley, on the coast of the Persian Gulf and in adjacent areas, Sumerians dominated, and further upstream, in later Akkad, Semites predominated, although traces of earlier settlers are also found here. The main cities of Sumer were Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Umma and Nippur. The city of Kish became the center of Akkad. The struggle for dominance took the form of rivalry between Kish and other Sumerian cities. Uruk's decisive victory over Kish, a feat attributed to the semi-legendary ruler Gilgamesh, marks the establishment of the Sumerians as a major political force and a decisive cultural factor in the region. Later the center of power moved to Ur, Lagash and other places. During this period, called the Early Dynastic, the main elements of the Mesopotamian civilization were formed. The era of Sumerian dominance. Sumerians

Dynasty of Akkad. Although Kish had previously submitted to the expansion of Sumerian culture, his political resistance put an end to the Sumerian dominance in the country. The ethnic core of the opposition was made up of local Semites led by Sargon (c. BC), whose throne name, Sharrukin, meant “legitimate king” in Akkadian. From then on, the whole country began to be called Akkad, and the language of the winners was called Akkadian. Having consolidated their power over Sumer and Akkad, the new rulers turned to neighboring regions. Elam, Ashur, Nineveh, and even areas in neighboring Syria and Eastern Anatolia were subjugated. Old system A confederation of independent states gave way to an empire with a system of central power. With the armies of Sargon and his famous grandson Naram-Suen, cuneiform, the Akkadian language and other elements of the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization spread.

The role of the Amorites. The Akkadian Empire ceased to exist by the end of the 3rd millennium BC, becoming a victim of unbridled expansion and invasions of barbarians from the north and west. Under Gudea of Lagash and the rulers of the Third Dynasty of Ur, a renaissance era began. But the attempt to restore Sumer's former greatness was doomed to failure. Meanwhile, new groups appeared on the horizon, which soon mixed with the local population to create Babylonia in place of Sumer and Akkad, and in the north - a new public education, Assyria. These widespread newcomers are known as Amorites. Wherever the Amorites settled, they became devoted followers and defenders of local traditions. After the Elamites put an end to the Third Dynasty of Ur (20th century BC). They were able to establish their own dynasty in central Akkad, with its capital in the previously little-known city of Babylon. The first dynasty of Babylon, defined with good reason as the Amorites, ruled for exactly three hundred years, from the 19th to the 16th centuries. BC The sixth king was the famous Hammurabi, who gradually gained control over the entire territory of Mesopotamia. Amorites

Economy. The economy of Mesopotamia was determined natural conditions region. Fertile soils the valleys yielded rich harvests. The south specialized in date palm cultivation. The extensive pastures of the nearby mountains made it possible to support large herds of sheep and goats. On the other hand, the country experienced a shortage of stone, metal, wood, raw materials for the production of dyes and other vital materials. The excess of some goods and the shortage of others led to the development of trade relations.

Religion. The religion of Mesopotamia in all its main aspects was created by the Sumerians. Over time, the Akkadian names of the gods began to replace the Sumerian ones. Local gods could also lead the pantheon of a particular region, as happened with Marduk in Babylon or Ashur in the Assyrian capital. But the religious system as a whole, the view of the world and the changes taking place in it were not much different from the original ideas of the Sumerians. None of the Mesopotamian deities were the exclusive source of power, none had supreme power. The full power belonged to the assembly of gods, which, according to tradition, elected a leader and approved all important decisions. At the same time, there was always the possibility that events would turn for the better if a person behaved correctly. The temple tower (ziggurat) was the place where the celestials stayed. It symbolized the human desire to establish a connection between heaven and earth. As a rule, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia relied little on the favor of the gods. They tried to appease them by performing increasingly complex rituals. Offering gifts to the gods

Writing The supreme authority of law was characteristic feature Mesopotamia historical period, but the effectiveness of legislative activity is associated with the use of written evidence and documents. There is reason to believe that the invention of writing by the ancient Sumerians was primarily driven by concern for private and communal rights. Already the earliest texts known to us testify to the need to record everything, be it objects needed for temple exchange or gifts intended for the deity. Such documents were certified by a cylinder seal. The most ancient writing was pictographic, and its signs depicted objects of the surrounding world - animals, plants, etc. The signs formed groups, each of which, consisting, for example, of images of animals, plants or objects, was composed in a certain sequence. Over time, the lists acquired the character of a kind of reference books on zoology, botany, mineralogy, etc.

Literature. The most famous poetic work is the Babylonian epic about the creation of the world. But it seems much more attractive oldest work, the tale of Gilgamesh. The characters of the world of animals and plants that appeared in fables were very loved by the people, just like proverbs. Sometimes a philosophical note creeps into literature, especially in works devoted to the theme of innocent suffering, but the attention of the authors is focused not so much on suffering as on the miracle of liberation from it. From the Epic of Gilgemash

Conclusion Mesopotamia brought many inventions to the world. The most important thing is writing. The Sumerians also introduced the sexagesimal number system into people's lives, which we still use today. The Sumerians gave us the wheel, agriculture, cities, bureaucracy, astrology, bread, beer. This list goes on and on. But many of their inventions were forgotten, and everything had to be reinvented after hundreds and even thousands of years. In 539 BC, Babylon was conquered by the Persians, after the Persians came the Greeks, and the Romans, and many others. But, if you believe the facts, it was the peoples of Mesopotamia who had the greatest influence on the formation of our world. The world we live in today.

Around 3000 BC The peoples of Mesopotamia already knew writing and could read. The original pictograms, scratched on stone and pressed into clay, were gradually replaced by complex geometric signs. Scribes used a pointed reed stick to draw on soft clay; the resulting wedge-like signs meant a whole word or syllable.

Enki (“lord of the earth”) is one of the main deities; he is the master of the underground world ocean, fresh waters, all earthly waters, as well as the god of wisdom and the lord of divine powers.

Ut-Napishtim (“found breath”), in mythology the only person who gained immortality.

Utu-Shamash (“day”, “shining”, “light”), in Sumerian mythology the solar god. On his daily journey across the sky, Utu-Shamash hid in the underworld in the evening, bringing light, drink and food to the dead at night, and came out again in the morning because of the mountains Uta was also revered as a judge, the guardian of justice and truth.

Ishtar (“goddess”), in mythology the central female deity, goddess of fertility, carnal love, goddess of war and strife, astral deity, personification of the planet Venus.

Temples played a special role in the development of Mesopotamian civilization. In Mesopotamia, the temple was not only a place where gods were worshiped, sacrifices and other religious activities were performed, but it was also a public storage facility for grain and food. The villagers poured some of the grain into such barns, creating a general reserve in case of some disaster. The repository was considered sacred, because bread, the basis of life, lay there, which means that good divine forces should also reside: the “spirit of grain” and other deities on which life and abundance depend. In and around this barn, important ceremonies were performed related to the introduction of a new crop into storage, the beginning of sowing and other seasonal holidays. Among the most ancient farmers, the barn and the sanctuary were inseparable from each other, and this dual unity of the religious and economic functions of the temple was preserved throughout Mesopotamian history. cult sacrifices