A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten; the literary tradition was not interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.
The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.
The largest in volume and most abundant in content are poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magic spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (the epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).
In addition to mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.
A unique written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series of advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.
For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.
The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.
Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, M., 1993.
The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are true encyclopedias of Indian life. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.
In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.
Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the technique of acting were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.
The theory of literary creativity, including poetry, reached a high level in Ancient India. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.
The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.
The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development of philosophical thought.
The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of the world, man, and moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.
Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.
Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, intimate knowledge”) - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented the dialogue of a sage - a teacher with his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that believe that the spiritual principle - Brahman, or Atman - is the primary cause and fundamental principle of existence. Brahman and Atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.
A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .
The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.
Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level, you can only cognize the surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.
One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, and the dependence of these states on the external elements and primary elements of the external world.
In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of the soul, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. Here the desire is expressed to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that “nourished” philosophical thought in India for a long time.
Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle, in various books of the Mahabharata there are texts of philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).
In terms of their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form of individual statements and positions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus.
Among these concepts, the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads, acquires the main importance among these concepts in the epic. True, these teachings various parts The Mahabharatas are presented in different ways, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it and unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).
One of the books that is of greatest interest from a philosophical point of view is the Bhagavad Gita (divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.
The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are respectively black, red and white, the colors that define people’s lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one’s duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and non-genuine knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.
Closely related to Vedic literature "Sacred Legends" including Sutra- manuals on sacrificial rituals, legislation, exposition of philosophical doctrines, rules of home life (one of such parts "Kamasutra"- treatise on the art of love).
The most valuable source for the study of ancient Indian socio-economic relations, as well as science and culture of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. serves epic literature. Main monuments - “ Mahabharata» And "Ramayana" recorded on Sanskrit in the first centuries of the new era, but basically existed already in the 4th century. BC
The plot of the Mahabharata (“The Great War of the Descendants of Bharata”), consisting of 107 thousand couplets, is the struggle for power within one of the most powerful royal families of Northern India, the descendants of the mythical king Bharata. The volume of the epic is eight times larger than the Iliad and Odyssey combined. The ancient legend about the bloody war over time acquired many additional episodes containing various tales and legends (for example, myths about the creation of the world, the flood), discussions on religious, philosophical and other topics. The Mahabharata, in fact, became not a poem, but a huge collection of ancient Indian epics.
The poem is distinguished by its great harmony of composition and careful processing. "Ramayana" including about 24 thousand couplets telling about the victory of the prince Frames(the earthly incarnation of the deity Vishnu) over the king of demons Ravana. Rama and his friend Hanuman (the monkey king) exert all their strength to free his wife Ramp-Sita, kidnapped by Ravana. For more than two thousand years, both of these poems have been extremely popular.
Samples of folk wisdom contain numerous Indian folk tales, fables, and stories. In them, ordinary people have courage, honesty, and resourcefulness, while those in power are often shown critically and with humor.
Based on folk and cult images in Ancient India, a dramaturgy. Its founder was dance pantomime, accompanied by a commentary from the narrator; Later, the actors also spoke up. A true classic of ancient Indian drama and lyric poetry recognized Kalidasa(IV-V centuries). In his dramas, the plots of which are borrowed from the epic, the inner world of the heroes is revealed. Along with prose dialogues and poetic monologues, they also contained dance and song interludes.
^ Transcendental Knowledge (fragment from the Bhagavad Gita)
- 16 Even smart people do not know what is action and what is inaction. Now I will explain to you what action is, and knowing this, you will be freed from all misfortunes.
- 17 All the intricacies of activity are very difficult to understand. Therefore, one should know well what is action, what is prohibited action and what is inaction.
- 18 He is a man of understanding who sees inaction in action and action in inaction; his position is transcendental, although he is engaged in various activities.
- 19 He is considered to have complete knowledge who is free from desires for sense gratification. The sages say that the consequences of his activities are burned by the fire of perfect knowledge.
- 20 Having renounced all attachment to the results of activity, always satisfied and independent, he does not perform actions that bear fruit, although he is constantly busy with all kinds of activities.
- 21 This knowledgeable person acts with complete control of the mind and intelligence, renounces all possessive instincts and works only for the sake of what is vital, and then the consequences of his sinful actions do not affect him Bhagavad Gita - part of the poem "Mahabharata".
Canonical religious literature, biographies of Buddha, and religious treatises are noticeable in volume and historical significance. The high level of ancient Indian literature is also evidenced by works on theoretical issues of poetry and literature.
Having emerged in ancient times, Indian artistic culture has become one of the most significant and unique cultures of the peoples of Asia. In the Deccan and in the south of the country, artistic monuments of the primitive era were found: cave paintings depicting hunting scenes, etc. Later, the fine arts and architecture of India were enriched with urban brick buildings and sculpture (depicting animals, people, deities), painted ceramics, and jewelry.
in general, according to carefully developed grammars of the Sanskrit language, etc. Learned Brahmin Panins(V-IV centuries BC) processed the language of late Vedic literature, called Sanskrit, which became widespread in the country as an important means of communication between numerous tribes and nationalities.
- Sanskrit is one of the main ancient Indian languages of the Indo-European group of the language family. It was distinguished by a strictly normalized and unified grammar.
It is customary to speak about the literary traditions of India in the plural; they represent such richness and diversity, although from ancient times they were fed from a single source - the great heritage of Vedic-Sanskrit literature. It is difficult to overestimate the importance for Indian literature of this continuity with the cultural and spiritual tradition of Sanskrit literature - it determined the flourishing of regional complexes of literature of the Indian Middle Ages, and it, sometimes explicitly, and sometimes latently, manifests itself as a substrate for the development of modern literature in the entire variety of cultures of the Indian subcontinent and in all Indian languages.
The beginning of the tradition of verbal culture in India is usually attributed to the era of the formation of the largest monuments of religious literature - Rigv e dy (“Vedas of hymns”, XV-IX centuries BC) and three later (IX-VII centuries BC) Vedas - Ath A tearing up e dy (“Vedas of conspiracies”), I jurv e dy (“Vedas of sacrificial exclamations”), C A Mav e dy (“Vedas of sacrificial chanting”). A rare feature of these works in the history of world literature, which influenced the entire subsequent literary process in India, is that these works were created and subsequently continued to exist for thousands of years exclusively in the oral tradition. The sacred nature of the Vedas, their primary role in religious ritual, required their absolutely accurate reproduction and, accordingly, the transmission of their text in the teaching tradition from generation to generation; this task was ensured by developed mnemonic techniques and the science of correct recitation, first of all, of the poetic hymns of the Rigveda addressed to various deities. Later (mid-1st millennium BC) commentary literature of the ancient era is represented by prosaic Brahman ritual texts - br A Khmanas (interpretations of sacrificial rules), their continuation is aran I ki (texts for forest hermits), giving a scholastic justification for the ritual described in the Brahmanas, and Upanish A dy (“secret teachings”), early monuments of philosophical literature, the postulates set forth in them later formed the basis of all philosophical systems of India. All works of this cycle, from the Vedas to the Upanishads, are defined in the Indian tradition by the term shr at ti (literature of "revelation" having divine origin), as opposed to smr And ty, or literature of “tradition” created by people.
The ancient literary tradition, which also developed orally, but on the basis of folk heroic legends and myths, took shape in the largest epic poem Mahabha A rata (“The Tale of the Great Battle of the Descendants of Bh A rats", IV -III centuries. BC-IV century AD). The core of the poem, the story of the enmity of two royal families and the great battle between them, in which all the tribes and peoples of India took part, over the centuries was overgrown with heterogeneous tales, texts of theological and philosophical content, which together constituted a multifaceted, but organically unified complex. Another great epic, Ram A Yana (“The Tale of R A meh", ok. IV century BC), is considered in the Indian tradition the first work of authorship created by the legendary “first poet” B A lmiki; this monument has reached our time in a form closer to the original. The central image of the poem, appearing in it as a heroic character, an example of an ideal, fair king-defender, is sacralized in the subsequent religious tradition and acquires the status of the incarnation of the god Vishnu. Krishna, one of the king-heroes of the Mahabharata, received the same divine status - at a later stage of its formation, this epic included a religious poem-instruction Bh A gawadg And that (“Song of the Lord”) in which the commandment of service and loving devotion is preached through the mouth of Krishna (bh A kti) to one god. The sacralization of the heroes and events that the epics narrate also elevated these works or parts thereof to the rank of sacred texts.
For other genres of Sanskrit literature, which began their formation around the 4th century BC, the consecrated tradition of the most ancient monuments of religious and epic literature served as both a cultural and plot basis, as well as a spiritual guide and artistic model: the sacralization of Sanskrit, inherited from the Vedic language , poetic meters, plots and characters, idealization of social types and relationships led to the emergence of a strict and multifaceted literary canon that regulated all aspects literary work. During the period called “classical” in ancient Indian literature (IV century BC - 10th century AD), the genres of epic religious-mythological poems (pur A us) and secular epic poems (to A Vya), lyric poetry, narrative literature and especially drama. One of the significant achievements of Indian literature can be considered the formation of prose narrative genres, originating from the Buddhist religious and philosophical canon. And taka (“Three baskets [laws]”, c. 3rd century BC), including j A after all, parables-sermons created in the language of A based on the processing of extensive folklore and fairy-tale material. Successive Sanskrit narrative literature created the original genre of the “framed story,” which had a significant influence on the formation of artistic prose not only in the East (Arab, Persian, peoples of Southeast Asia), but also in Europe. An example of a monument of this genre is the collection of didactic tales and fables P A start A ntra (“Pentateuch”, rub. III-IV centuries AD), in which a number of narrative plots frame moral stories, successively incorporated into one another. Other genres of the heyday of Sanskrit literature are vividly represented by the classical poem Ashvagha O shi "Life of Buddha" (B at ddhach A Rita, I -II centuries. AD), lyrical and epic poems of Kalid A sy (V century) “Kin R A ghu" (R A ghuv A msha), “Cloud Messenger” (Meghad at ta), drams Sh at fights (c. 4th century) “Clay cart” (Mr. And chchhak A tika), Kalidasa "Shak at ntala", "Obtained by courage U rvashi" (Vikram O rvashi"), Visakhad A you (VI century) “Ring r A kshasa" (M at drar A kshasa), lyrical works of Bhartrich A ri and a collection of love and erotic poems in the genre of A taka ("stostishie") Am A ru (both - VI -VII centuries). The spirit of traditionalism and continuity, which dominated Indian culture as a whole and persisted in it until the twentieth century, is manifested in the literary monuments of this era in a complex interweaving of epic-heroic and mythological plots and motifs, religious and didactic themes, folklore images and design techniques for works. literature inherited from ancient times. The intense literary life of Northern India served as an impetus for the creation of a special theoretical discipline, poetics, which singled out artistic and aesthetic problems solved by literature into an independent sphere. The problems of Indian drama and theatrical art were the first to be subjected to theoretical development, which was reflected in the treatise of N. A tyash A stra (“The Science of Theater”, from the 4th century BC to the 8th century AD), whose authorship is attributed to the legendary sage Bh A rat. Later, from this tradition, the normative discipline of “the science of poetry” emerged, regulating linguistic means artistic expression, establishing the nature of the aesthetic impact of a poetic text (theory A sy, “aesthetic emotion”) and indirect (hidden) expression of the poet’s intention (dhw theory A nor, lit., “echo”). Theoretical analysis of poetic-aesthetic categories, reflected in the most authoritative works of Bh A Mahi (IV -VII centuries), D A Ndina (VII century), An A ndav A Rdhana (IX century), Abhin A vag at pts (X-XI centuries), finally determined the design of an extensive poetic canon, covering both thematic, plot and emotional-aesthetic, as well as genre, compositional and stylistic aspects of poetic works.
At the same time, the lack of historical chronicles, hagiographic literature and indications of exact dating, oral history and other O The late, compared to the time of creation, written recording of many monuments of Indian literature gave rise to the problem of the authenticity of their language, numerous textual issues associated with later editing and additions, as well as problems of authorship of a number of works that may have been created over generations in the line of succession of recognized literary , scientist or spiritual authority. The same problems are very characteristic of the subsequent stage of development of Indian literature in modern Indian and Dravidian languages, which is usually defined as the Indian Middle Ages; they are aggravated by the presence of significant gaps in the fixation of the literary tradition, which for a long time developed in oral form in the Central Indian vernacular. A Cretan and Apabhr languages A nsha. Upper limit A new cycle of the formation of literary and verbal creativity is thus established approximately at the beginning of the 10th century. AD; the specificity of this stage is determined, first of all, by the gradual divergence of regional literary traditions in various New Indian languages and dialects, in the languages of the Dravidian south, which acquire their identity against the background of continuity with the Sanskrit cultural tradition. In the North-West of India, the genres of lyric-epic and heroic poems-biographies of feudal princes (in And rr A co) in Braj and Rajasth languages A neither (X-XIV centuries), in Northern and Eastern India the beginning of literary creativity is associated with the activities of Buddhist and Shaivite sects; The greatest originality is the translation of monuments of epic and classical Sanskrit literature into Dravidian languages and the formation of new genres of lyrical-didactic poems (the great A ndha) and poetic collections of religious chants in the literature of South India. The further “reverse” process of the influence of religious-lyrical and hymn poetry of South Indian literature on North Indian literature is associated with the spread of the religious reform movement of bhakti (XV - mid-XVII centuries) of various interpretations, which gave birth in the northern and eastern regions of India to an extensive and diverse in genre and conceptually, poetic preaching, religious-mystical, hymn, lyrical, epic-heroic, etc. literature in the medieval Braj and Av languages A dhi. The most representative monuments of this era are considered to be the mystical-religious poetic sermons of Kab And ra (1398-1518), works of guru N A Naka (1469-1538), the founder of the religious doctrine of Sikhism, the lyric-epic poems of Indian Sufis, in particular the poem “Padm”, dating back to the same reform era A wat" of Muhammad J A Yasi (1499-1542), lyrical poems by the Bengali Vaishnava preacher Choit O but (Chait A Nya, 1486-1533), mythical-epic poem by the preacher of Hare Krishna bhakti Surd A sa (1483-1563) "Source" A gar" ("Ocean of Surdas's hymns"), lyrics by M And ry B A and (1499-1547), famous in the Indian tradition, the arrangement and re-interpretation of the epic Ramayana by the poet-preacher of the Ramitic bhakti Tulsid A sa (1532-1623), etc.
In the literatures of the late Indian Middle Ages and modern/contemporary times, similar trends are observed, reduced to a typologically common, although separated by centuries, process. Among the common features, one should note the rethinking and new interpretation of traditional epic and mythological plots and heroes in line with the religious and philosophical ideas of bhakti and the nationalist reformation of Hinduism in the 19th - early 20th centuries, the rejection of the classical forms of the literary canon, initially based on folk imagery and systems of song-lyrical, hymn, didactic, etc. genres. folk poetry, and more radical - within the framework of twentieth-century literature, which was influenced by Western educational ideas and, further, in formal terms, adopted the artistic concepts of European romanticism, realism, avant-garde and postmodernism. The process of typological convergence, both in formal literary and ideological terms, of works of Indian literature with foreign cultural works is also obvious. literary traditions: in the Middle Ages, this was manifested in the creation, in the context of Indo-Muslim cultural synthesis, of Sufi preaching poems and a number of works of bhakti, in modern times - in the perception and assimilation of European artistic movements, religious, philosophical and socio-political doctrines, reflected at all levels in literary creativity . The specificity of the literary era of the late Middle Ages is the relatively short (XVII-XVIII centuries) period of flowering of secular court literature based on the revival of the categories and stylistic principles of classical Sanskrit poetics, which nevertheless made an important artistic contribution to the general literary process of New Indian poetry in the person of its most significant representatives - Keshavd A sa (1555-1617), Bh at shana (1613-1725), Padm A Kara (1753-1833), etc. The peculiarity of Indian literature of modern / modern times (late 18th - 20th centuries) is the transition of all literary creativity to modern state official and regional languages (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Telugu, Tamil, etc. .p.), the formation of their literary norms and the development of prosaic literary and journalistic genres (almost not represented in the literature of the Middle Ages), new topical topics in demand by the ideological, social and political situation of the time, and more developed in conceptual, psychological and formal terms, reflection of the creative process. These trends, set primarily by the works of the classics of Bengali literature And ndran A ta Tag O ra (1861-1941), Sh.Ch O ttopaddh A I (1876-1938), as well as the founder of the prose and drama genres of Hindi Bharat literature e ndu Harishch A Dndra (1850-1885) and editor of the literary and journalistic magazine in Hindi “Sar A swati" (first quarter of the 20th century) Mahav And ra Pras A yes Dwiv e di, were embodied throughout the twentieth century. in numerous literary movements, in almost all multilingual national literatures of India.
See also:
Monographs and Papers
Monographs and Papers
Indian dances
Indian dance is a more multifaceted concept; it is a whole world inextricably linked with music, singing, theater, literature, religion and philosophy.
Centers for Indian Studies in Russia
Where in Russia they study India
Languages of India
India is a huge country, it is a whole world in itself, there is amazing diversity in everything, and languages are no exception.
Zograf Readings
International conference "Zograph Readings"
Exploring Ancient India
The teaching of Indian languages and literature at St. Petersburg University began in 1836, when R. H. Lenz was invited to lecture on Sanskrit and comparative linguistics. (1808-1836), but the systematic study of Indian philology began after the creation of the Faculty of Oriental Languages and the opening of the Department of Indian Philology there (1958).
Centers for Russian Studies in India
Where in India they study Russia
Brief History of India
India is a South Asian state located on the Hindustan Peninsula. India as a state within its present borders was created in 1947, when it was divided by the British government into two independent dominions, India and Pakistan.
History of India, Indus Valley Civilization
Until the beginning of the twentieth century, it was believed that the history of Ancient India began with the arrival of warlike nomads - Aryan tribes, bearers of archaic Vedic culture - from the north-west, and that what came before them was only primitive primitive tribes, whose history is shrouded in darkness
Indian literature
The most ancient monument of Indian literature are the Vedas (see) and the extensive prose literature adjacent to them, developing and supplementing their content. The period to which the creation of the Vedas proper, or their poetic parts, the so-called samhita (compound, collection), dates back to c. 2000-1500 (Rigveda Samhita) and ends approx. 1200-1000 BC. Adjacent to it is the era in which the named prose literature was developed (from 1000-800 to 400 or 300 BC). Its oldest monuments are the Brahmans (brâhmana), dating approximately to the period between 1000-800. BC and are mainly explanations of a complex sacrificial ritual. Adjacent to the Brahmanas are the later Aranyakas (forest books), intended for hermits who indulge in pious contemplation and reflection on issues of religion and cult. Little by little, the philosophical and theosophical element begins to separate out in them, and thus the most ancient philosophical treatises of the Hindus are developed - the Upanishads (secret, hidden teaching); the ceremonies and rules of the ritual begin to be set out in sutras (sûtra - thread, cord, rule, guide). The period of the later Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads dates back to approximately 800-600, and the period of the Sutras to 600-400 or 300 BC. The Brahmanas are all associated with one Veda or another. The Rig Veda includes Aitareya Brahmana (ed. Aufrecht, Bonn, 1879, without translation, and Mart. Gaug with English translation, Bombay, 1863), dedicated mainly to the ritual of Soma, and Shankhayana or Kaushitaka Brahmana (ed. Lindner, so far only text, Jena, 1887), in which the sacrifice of Sohme also plays a prominent role, but only as component general system of ritual. Both Brahmins are very interesting for the legends they contain. Each has its own aranyaka. Aitareya-aranyaka (in which the four chapters of the 2nd book form the Aitareya Upanishad, published in 1874 in Calcutta) and Kaushitaki-aranyaka (the third book is the K. Upanishad). Aitareya Brahmana belongs to the most ancient Brahmanas. The Samaveda includes: Tandya-brahmana (consists of 25 books and is therefore also called Rañçavimça-B., ed. in "Biblioth. Indica", 1869-74, Anandachandra Vedantavagisha), which also deals with the sacrifice of Soma (like all Samaveda); then Shadvimsha b. and Chandogya b. The last eight chapters of Chandogya b. form the so-called Chandogya Upanishad (ed. Jibananda Vidyasagar in Calcutta, 1873. Translation by M. Müller in “Sacred Books of the East”, vol. I, Oxford, 1879. Latest edition with German translation by Böttlingk, Lpc., 1889 , and in Poona, 1890, one text and commentary). The remnant of the fourth Brahmana Samaveda (ninth book) is considered to be the Kena or Talavakara Upanishad (see about it "Ind. Studien" by Weber, vol. II. Ed. Roer "a in VIII vol. "Biblioth. Indica", English translation of it same in the XV volume). The general character of the Brahmana is the excessive development of mystical and fantastic tricks, the constant identification of various types of sacred song (Saman) with all kinds of things on earth and in heaven belong to the black Yajurveda: Taittiriya Brahmana (ed. Rajendralal Mitra in). Calcutta, 1855-1870) and the associated Taittiriya Aranyaka (published by the same, in Kalk., 1864-70), the last four chapters of which form the T. Upanishad and Yajniks, or Narayaniya Upanishad, the famous one is associated with the white Yajurveda. and the most important of all Brahmanas - Shatapatha b. (ed. Weber, Berlin and London, 1855. Translation of passages in Weber in "Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch.", IV, 1850; in Delbrück in II and III t. his "Syntaktische Forschungen"; in Lindner in his "Dîkshâ oder die Weihe für d. Somaopfer", Lpc., 1878. English. translation, ed. Eggeling in "Sacred Books of the East", 1882-1894, Oxford). Shatapatha b. consists of XIV books (kanda), of which the first nine constitute the oldest part; books X-XIII contain partly mystical legends and interpretations, partly already known ritual descriptions and explanations; Book 14 forms an independent work - the Upanishad, called Brhad-aranyaka ("great a.". Published by Jibananda Vidyasagar in Calcutta, 1875, Apte in Pune, 1891, and Bötlingk with German translation, St. Petersburg, 1889 ), the largest and most remarkable among the Upanishads. Legends of Shatapatha b. have great historical and historical-literary significance; they contain the names of different localities and persons who apparently played a large role in the history of India; here we find the oldest Indian legend about the flood, etc. Many of them were subsequently subjected to artificial processing, such as, for example, the legend of the separation of Pururava and Urvashi, which served as the plot for one of the best dramas of Kalidasa. The Brahmana of the Atharva Veda is called Gopatha b. (ed. in Bibliotheca Indica, 1870-72, Rajendralala Mitra). Of the Upanishads, many are classified as Atharva Veda, but these are mostly later works (Atharvana Upanishads (11). Ed. by G. A. Jacob, Bombay, 1891). One of the most important is the Kathaka Upanishad (English translation with an introduction, published by Whitney, Hartford, 1890). Total number all the Upanishads are very significant. Weber counts 235 of them. The oldest and most important of them are those that form the conclusion of the three main Vedas and therefore bear the name Vedanta, i.e. “the end of the Vedas.” The most ancient Upanishads: Aitareya-, Kaushitaki-, Vashkala-, Chandogya-up., Shatarudriya, Shikshavalli or Taittiriya-Samhita-up., Tadeva, Shivasamkalpa, Purushasukta, Isha-up. and Brhad Aranyaka. These include Kathaka-, Maitri-, Shvetashvatara-up. and maybe Mundaka and Prashna-up. There is no complete philosophical system here. Some main ideas appear several times, but in general it is a rather motley kaleidoscope of semi-poetic, semi-philosophical fantasies, insights, often striking in their depth, often presented in the form of dialogues between two arguing or conversing individuals. All this is expressed in an unusually original way, vividly and directly, with great enthusiasm, which is caused by the consciousness that the truth is here, close: one effort of the spirit, and he will master it. Later, from these semi-philosophical, semi-poetic treatises, a complete philosophical system was developed, also called Vedanta (see). The sutras fall into two main sections: 1) srauta, or kalpa-sutras, setting out systematically the sacrificial ritual (kalpa) and based on the “sacred tradition” (shruti), i.e., on the Vedas and Brahmanas, “revealed” from above. 2) Smartasutras, which provide rules for home and social life and are based on ordinary worldly tradition, “memory, remembrance” (smrti). Smartasutras, in turn, are divided into grhyasutras, i.e., rules of home life, and dharmasutras (q.v.), i.e., guidelines for the fulfillment of public duties, duty, laws. The contents of the kalpasutras or srautasutras are not of general interest. Here we find a dry description of the sacrificial ritual, usually presented in the form of unusually compressed and therefore difficult to understand formulas. Of particular antiquity among them is the Manavashrautasutra (part of it was published in facsimile by Goldstücker, 1861, London), belonging to the “black” Yajurveda. In addition to it, the shrautasutras are associated with the “black” Yajurveda: Laugakshi, Baudhayana, Bharavaja, Apastamba, Giranyakeshin (only part of the Apastambashrautasutra by R. Garbe was published in “Biblioth. Indica”, vol. I, Kalk., 1882; vol. II, ibid. , 1883-86). The Katyanashrautasutra belongs to the “white” Yajurveda (edited by Weber in the third volume of his complete edition of the “white” Yajurveda. Berl. and Lond., 1859). The Rigveda includes the srautasutras of Ashvalayana (ed. in "Bibliotheca Indica", Calc., 1864-74) and Shankhayana (ed. Hillebrandt, "Biblioth. Indica", Calc., 1855-92). The Srautasutras of Mashaka, Latyayana (ed. in "Biblioth. Indica", Kalk., 1877) and Dragyayana belong to the Samaveda, and the Vaitanasutra (ed. by R. Garbe, London 1878, his German translation, Strasbourg, 1878) belongs to the Atharvaveda. . The names added to the general term "srautasutra" denote the learned Brahmanas who belonged to the various Vedic schools and who compiled these manuals. The grhyasutras are of general interest. Rites of home worship, daily prayers and gifts brought to the gods by the head of the family, various occasions of family life, matchmaking, betrothal, wedding, rituals and customs during pregnancy, the birth of a child and naming him, when sending him to study, his behavior in the teacher’s house - brahmana, receiving important guests, leaving for the road and returning, laying the foundation of his own house by a Hindu who is already ripe for family life, consecration of ponds, wells, gardens, a house if an owl lands on it or there are bees and ants in it, rituals for eating the first fruits , when releasing cows to pasture, gifts to ancestors and sacrifices for the dead, etc. - this is the rich content found in the grhyasutras. The Grhyasutras are also divided into different Vedas and are named after their semi-mythical compilers. The Rig Veda includes: Ashvalayana-grhyasutra (ed. with German translation, Stenzler, in 1864-65, in "Abhandlungen d. deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft", vol. III, no. 4, and vol. IV, no. 1. The text was also published in "Bibliotheca Indica", 1866-1869. Oldenberg's English translation in "Sacred Books of the East", vol. XXIX, Oxf., 1886) and Shankhayana-grhyasutra (ed. from the German translation by Oldenberg in Weber's "Indische Studien", vol. XV. Berl., his English translation in "Sacr. Books", vol. XXIX). The “black” Yajurveda includes Kathaka-g. and Manava-g. (about her, see Bradke’s article in “Zeitschr. der deutsch. Morgenländisch. Gesellschaft”, vol. XXXVI), and to the “white” - Paraskara-g. (ed. with German translation by Stenzler, in "Abhandl. d. deutsch. Morgenländ. Gesellschaft", vol. VI, no. 2 and no. 4, Lpc., 1876-1878. English translation by Oldenberg in "Sacred Books", vol. .XXIX). Gobhila g. is associated with Samaveda. (ed. in "Biblioth. Indica", Kalk., 1880, and Kyiv prof. Knauer, Dorpat, 1884. German translation by Knauer, Lpc., 1886), and with the Atharveda Kaushikasutra (ed. Bloomfield, New Haven, 1890 ). Another type of smartasutras, dharmasutras (q.v.), are collections of customary law on which later Hindu legal literature is based. Their publications: "Apastambas Dharmasûtra" (Bühler, Bombay, 1868-71, 1892), "The Institutes of Gautama" (Stenzler, L., 1876), "The Vishnu-smrti" (ed. Jolly, Kalk., 1881) , "Vasishthadharmaçastram" (ed. Führer, Bombay, 1883), "Bâudhâyanadharmaçastra" (ed. Hultsch, Lpc., 1884, in "Abhandl. f. d. Kunde des Morgenländes", vol. VIII, no. 4. English translation ed. Bühler and Jolly in "Sacr. Books", vol. II and XIV, Oxford, 1879-82), "The Institutes of Vishnu by Jolly" (Oxf., 1880, "Sacr. Books", vol. VII). The Upanishads end the Vedic period, as indicated by their name Vedanta (end of the Vedas). The religious movement of Buddhism contributed relatively few works to the history of Indian literature. At their head must be placed the Dhammapada, a collection of sayings in the Pali language, which represents the most beautiful and poetic work of all Buddhist literature (ed. Fausböll, Copenhagen, 1855. German translation by Weber in "Zeitshrift der deutsch. Morgenländ. Gesellsch.", vol. XIV, and his "Indische Streifen", vol. I, Berl., 1868, then Leor v. Schröder, "Worte der Wahrheit - Dhammapadam", Lpc., 1892; Lpc., 1893; English translation by Max Müller, "Sacr. Books of the East", vol. X.; Par. English translation by M. Muller). Particularly characteristic of Buddhist literature are the so-called Jatakas (q.v.), i.e., stories from old life Buddha, who was reborn 550 times. They are very important for characterizing Buddhist morality and everyday philosophy and undoubtedly also played an important role in the development of Indian fables and parables (ed. from the English translation by Fausbøll and Rhys Davids, London, 1877-92; then Fausbøll's edition: "Five Jâtakas", Kopeng ., 1861, "Dasarathajâtakam", ibid., 1871, and "Ten Jâtakas", ibid., 1872). The sacred books of Buddhists (for northern Buddhists in Sanskrit, for southern Buddhists in Pali), put in order at the first three councils, are called Tripitaka (three baskets) and are divided into three sections: 1) Sutras, the oldest part, contain sayings and Buddha's sermons, his conversations with his disciples, etc. ("Sacr. Books of the East", vol. XX, Oxf., 1881, English translation from Pali by Rhys Davids). 2) Vinaya (q.v.) treats discipline, hierarchy and cult (original Pali text ed. Oldenberg, London 1879-1882, and together with Rhys Davids's English translation, Oxf., 1881-85, "Sacred Books", vol. XII, XVII, XX). 3) Abhidharma - dogmatic-philosophical content, metaphysics of Buddhism. The historical literature created by Buddhism includes the Pali chronicles, which are closely related in content: Deepavansa (ed. and English translation by Oldenberg , Leningrad, 1879) and Magavansa (ed. Turnour, Colombo, 1837, in Latin transcription; Sumangala, original in Sinhalese script, Colombo, 1877-1883. English translation by Turner and Wijesingha, Colombo, 1889), which are of great importance for historical history in general. The literature of the Indian Middle Ages, that is, the era immediately adjacent to the Vedic and starting approximately from the 6th century BC, reflects all the various historical influences and trends of this time: its characteristic features. fantastic element, an inclination towards the miraculous in all areas and in all its forms, a very pronounced desire for the unearthly, supernatural, dreaminess, rejection, deep sincerity and sincerity of mood, along with formlessness and lack of a sense of proportion in relation to formal architectonics. With these features it vividly resembles European romantic literature. From a formal point of view it is almost remarkable complete absence prose; the vast majority of works are written in poetic form. Not only legal codes (dharmashastras), but also scientific works (with the exception of grammatical and philosophical ones) were written in verse. The unique prose style developed in the Vedic Brahmanas and Upanishads is falling into oblivion. Where prose is found (in grammatical and philosophical sutras, commentaries, etc.), it has a highly compressed style, reminiscent of mathematical formulas, alien to life, completely artificial. Prose passages are also found in drama, fairy tales and fables, but always interspersed with poetic speech. Under such conditions, it is quite natural that the prose style of medieval Indian literature never developed and, in comparison with ancient prose, represents rather a step back, while the art of versification reaches high perfection. The oldest works of this era are epic. In this respect, the history of the development of literature among the Hindus is completely different from that of the Greeks, who began with epic and then moved on to lyricism and drama. The Hindus, on the contrary, began with religious lyrics (Vedas), in which, however, the already known rudiments of epic and even drama are found, but in a very embryonic state. From lyricism they moved to epic, followed by drama. The epic of the Hindus thus represents the above-mentioned romantic characteristics, while the epic of the Greeks has a strictly classical character. The epic poems of the Hindus are divided into: 1) itihasas, puranas or akhyanas (i.e. sagas, epics, tales), 2) kavya, i.e. artificial poems composed by poets (kavi). The representative of the first class is the Mahabharata, the second - the Ramayana. Itihasa Puranas are already called in later Brahmanas those legend-like individual insertions that occur quite often in them. The epithets itihasa (legend, saga), purana ("old time", fable, epic), akhyana (legend, story) are all applied to the Mahabharata, which is thus a poem that has taken into itself the tales and legends of previous centuries. On the contrary, the Ramayana, a poem conceived and executed according to a certain definite plan by one poet, is usually called kavya and is an example of an artificial poem. The Mahabharata is a huge poetic encyclopedia that combines all the ancient legends. Its main plot (the struggle of two clans, Kuru and Pandu, descended from Bharata, one of the representatives of the Lunar Dynasty, over the possession of a piece of land near present-day Delhi and the capital Gastinapura. The struggle ends with the reconciliation of both sides) only part of the entire poem is allocated - 20,000 shlokas (couplets). The remaining 80,000 slokas are occupied by all sorts of inserted episodes, some of which themselves appear to be voluminous and completely independent poems. The poem contains the following definition: “this is a great textbook of the useful, a textbook of the just, a textbook of the pleasant, expressed by Vyasa, who has an immeasurable spirit.” The author of the Mahabharata is the completely mythical creature Vyasa, who is also credited with composing various ancient texts: Vedas, Puranas, Vedanta, etc., while the author of the Ramayana - Valmiki - does not have such a fabulous character, although almost nothing is known about him. There is no doubt that the general character of the Mahabharata with its heroic worldview indicates its great antiquity (at least in the main plot) compared to the Ramayana, the hero of which is the personification of the virtues already developed by Brahmanism: obedience, submission to fate, fidelity to duty, self-denial, piety, etc. . e. The events that served as the main plot for the Mahabharata (the struggle between Kuru and Pandu) date back to approximately 1000 BC, i.e., to the time when the Hindus had already moved further to the East, to the Ganges valley (see . India, history), and their state and social system began to take shape. These events probably very soon served as the plot for individual tales, or rhapsodies (akhyana, itihasa), from which the Mahabharata subsequently grew. There is no doubt that its general edition was formed much later, probably even before the beginning of our era, so that its ancient legends and epics still bear traces of later historical influences. Brahmanism left its mark on them, and the Mahabharata is a rich source for the study of the social forms and ethical ideals it developed. The final edition of the Mahabharata probably dates back to the first centuries of our era, when the poem took on its modern dimensions and composition (from the 4th to the 9th centuries; for literature, see the article Mahabharata). The content of the Ramayana is more integral and less rich than the content of the Mahabharata, but it also contains several independent episodes that violate (although not to the same extent as in the Mahabharata) the unity of plan and the integrity of the impression. Some parts of it are perhaps no less ancient than the most ancient components of the Mahabharata, but its general character bears the imprint of an undeniably later, more romantic worldview. Its plot and the poem itself are still especially loved and popular among Hindus (for literature, see in the article Ramayana). General essays. according to I. epic: Lassen, “Indische Alterthumskunde” (2nd ed. vol. I, Lpts., 1867); Holtzmann, "Ueber d. alte indische Epos" (Durlach, 1881, program); Williams Monier, "Indian epic poetry" (L. 1863); his, “Indian Wisdom” (4th ed. L., 1893). In many respects, the Mahabharata is closely related to large epic-didactic poems bearing the name Puran (see). This term is already found in the Brahmans, where it denotes narratives of cosmogonic content. It also applies to the Mahabharata (see above). Contents of the Puranas: cosmogony, fabulous history, exploits and history of ancient gods, saints and heroes, their genealogy, etc. All of them are of relatively late origin (last millennium) and bear a strong imprint of Hindu sectarianism: Vaishnavism and Shaivism (especially the first) . Their common source is the Mahabharata, the ancient sagas of which are greatly modified in the Puranas. The artistic and poetic significance of the Puranas, however, is immeasurably lower than their source (for literature, see the Puranas). In the same way, next to the Ramayana stands a whole series of other, later kavya, i.e., artificial poems. More significant than the others are two poems attributed to Kalidasa (see below), i.e., probably dating back to the 6th century. according to R.H.: Raghuvansha (genus of Raghu) and Kumarasambhava (birth of the god of war). Both are distinguished by outstanding poetic beauty and, perhaps, really belong to Kalidasa (first ed., with Latin translation, Stenzler, London, 1832. Text published in Calcutta, 1832, 1880 and 1884, in Bombay - in 1869-74 and 1880. One episode translated by Rückert, 1833. Second ed. from the Latin translation by Berl and L., 1838. Also in Bombay, 1871, and in Calcutta 3rd ed., 1875. English translation ed. Griffith. . L., 1879). Other kavyas in their content are very close to the Mahabharata and Ramayana, reworking the same plots; but they lack the simplicity, objectivity and spontaneity of these two great poems. The epic element in them is increasingly intertwined with the lyrical, didactic and erotic. In terms of form, we find in them a special sophistication, a desire to play with various external difficulties, and artificiality developed to the highest degree. Among them, the first place is occupied by the so-called. Mahakavya, i.e. “Great Kavyas” (6 in number). These include, besides Raghuvanshi and Kumarasambhava, four more: 1) Bhattikavya, composed at Valabhi in the 6th or 7th AD and depicting the story of Rama, the author’s main attention being paid to the explanation of grammar and usage irregular shapes declinations and conjugations (published in Calcutta 1828, then there, 1876; 5 chapters from it published in German translation, with an introduction, Schütz "em, in Bielefeld, 1837); 2) Maghakavya, or Shishupalabadha (death of Shishupala, op. . Magha), dating back to the end of the 10th century (published in Calcutta, 1884, and Benares in 1883. Beginning of the German translation, I-XI songs, published by Schütz, Bielefeld, 1843); 6th century (published in Calcutta, 1875 and 1879. Songs I and II in German translation, published by Schütz, Bielefeld, 1845) and 4) Naishadhiyam, dating back to the 12th century (see about it Bühler, "Journal". of the Bombay Branch R. As. Soc.", X, 35; ed. in Benares, 1880). Among other kavyas, Nalodaya, attributed to Kalidasa, should be mentioned. Its content is the famous story of Nala and Damayanti, which constitutes one of the best interpolated episodes of the Mahabharata The authorship of Kalidasa is doubtful. The poem is an example of the extraordinary artificiality that distinguishes the later Kavyas. All kinds of artificial meters, alliteration, internal and final rhyme, play with formal difficulties are its external features. As for the content, the epic element in it often disappears behind long lyrical outpourings. So, for example, the entire second song of the poem, larger in size than all the others, is purely lyrical in nature and depicts the happiness of the newlyweds Nal and Damayanti (published in 1830 by Benari, in 1844 in Calcutta by Yates with a metrical English translation. Excellent German . poetic translation published by Ad. Fr. Schack in the 2nd edition of his "Stimmen vom Ganges", 1877). The extent to which the desire for external virtuosity reached, besides Bhattikavya, can be exemplified by the kavya Raghavapandaviyam of the poet Kaviraja from the 10th century, in which two stories are told simultaneously, in the same words: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Of course, this is achieved only by using words and phrases that have a double meaning. Kalidasa is credited with an epic poem in Prakrit (in the Magarashtri dialect, from which the modern Indian language Marathi was later developed), the content of which is again given by the story of Rama: Setubandha (building of the bridge) or Ravanabadha (death of Ravana, the demon who kidnapped Rama’s wife), published with him. translation by S. Goldschmidt (Strasb., 1880-84). Indian fables and fairy tales, in contrast to the works considered, represent numerous and very close family ties with the same kind of works of other peoples. It is very difficult to decide whether they are original products of I. creativity or borrowed from other peoples, especially from the Greeks. Indeed, many I. fables (in the Panchatantra, Gitopadesha, etc.) are strikingly similar to the Greek ones attributed to Aesop. The famous Sanskritist Albr. Weber ("Indische Literaturgeschichte", 1st ed., 1852) first spoke out in favor of the originality of the I. fable and the origin of the Greek fable from it. This same view was supported by Wagener ("Essai sur les rapports, qui existent entre les apologues de l"Inde et les apologues de la Grèce. Mémoires couronnés... publiés par l"academie royale.. de Belgique", vol. XXV, 1851-53), but Weber subsequently changed his view and came to the opposite: the Hindus borrowed their fable from the Greeks (Weber, "Ueber den Zusammenhang indischer Fabeln mit griechischen", in "Ind. Studien", vol. III, and his "Indische Literaturgeschichte", 2 ed., 1876). Weber's opponent was O. Keller ("Ueber die Geschichte der griechischen Fabeln", 1862), again proving the primacy of I. fable. Benfey stands on the side of Weber’s final view (preface to his translation of the Panchatantra, Lpc., 1859), who, however, does not deny a certain amount of independent creativity. There is no doubt that the Indians, even before borrowing from the Greeks, had their own, original I. fable, which is recognized by both Benfey and Weber. On the other hand, Wagener and Keller, being not Sanskritists, could not support their point of view with solid evidence and themselves fell into inaccuracies and errors. Weber’s last opinion is also supported by the fact that, judging by some monuments of Greek art (6th century BC), the so-called Aesop’s fable was already known among the Greeks in the 6th century. BC, that is, in an era when there were no relations between India and the Greeks. The richest and most important historical and literary collection of I. fairy tales and fables is the Panchatantra ("Five Books"), the time of whose origin cannot be determined with certainty. In any case, it already existed before 531-579. according to R.H., because at that time he was transferred to pahlvi by order of the Persian king Khosru Anushirvan. This translation was followed by a number of others: into Arabic, Greek, Persian, Syriac, Hebrew, Latin, German and other languages (for details and literature, see Panchatantra). Very closely related to the Panchatantra is another similar collection, Gitopadesha (q.v.), most of which is borrowed from the Panchatantra. But the sententious element is stronger in it; the number of sayings (beautiful and profound) here is so great that it disrupts the flow of the story. In India, Gitopadesha is still one of the most beloved books (for literature, see Gitopadesha). In addition to these two collections, there are several others that also have general literary and historical significance. This is the collection of fairy tales and stories of Vetalapanchavinshati (ed. in Calcutta, 1873, by Jibananda Vidyasagara. Of her 25 stories, 15 were published, with German translation, by H. Uhle, Dresd., 1877. He also owns the complete edition of the text in "Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes", Lpc., 1881. German translation of Luber, published in Goertz, 1885. Then Shukasaptati (70 stories of the parrot), which turned into the Turkish Tutiname - the book of the parrot (ed. Schmidt, Lpc., 1893). German translation, Kiel, 1893); in "Journal Asiat.", 1845, October). Of particular importance among these collections is the collection of tales of Somadeva from Kashmir (11th century AD) - Katharitsagara, i.e. “sea of fabulous streams,” which also contains an extract from the first three books of the Panchatantra (for literature, see Somadeva) . From other collections, only their titles have been preserved. It is very likely that Benfey suggests that Sinbad, the sailor of the Arabian 1001 nights, the hero of “The Tale of the Seven Viziers,” is a later echo of the Indian Siddhapati (i.e., the lord of wizards or sages) who set out to wander, who was completely forgotten in his homeland (see Benfey, "Pantschatantra", I, p. 23, and his "Orient und Occident", vol. III, pp. 171-180). The Indians also had several novels, but few, however, were remarkable. These are: Dashakumaracharitam, belonging to Dandin (q.v.), probably from the 6th century. A.D., then Vasavadatta (q.v.), by Subandhu, and finally by Kadambari (the name of the heroine), by Bana (published in Calcutta, 1850, then in 1883, Bombay Sanscrit Series No. XXIV. Peterson with an important historical-literary introduction; 2nd ed. 1889. More ed. by Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, Calcutta, 2nd ed. . Weber, "Indische Literaturgeschichte", 2 ed., 1876; his, "Indische Streifen", vol. I, B. 1868. About the author Ban, see . M. Müller, "Indien in seiner weltgeschichtlich. Bedeutung", Lpts., 1884, pp. 252 et seq., 282 et seq., or “India: what can it teach us”, L., 1883, pp. 307 et seq., 330 et seq.). Both last novels probably belong to the 12th century. AD In the field of lyric poetry, there are only a small number of more extensive lyrical poems, among which the first place is occupied by the poems of Kalidasa (probably 6th century AD): Meghaduta (cloud-ambassador) and Rtusankhara (collection of the seasons) . The content of the first revolves in the sphere of purely human feelings and images, although the hero of the poem is Yaksha, that is, a genius, a demigod from the retinue of Kuvera (the god of wealth). Separated from his sweetheart, he sends his greetings to her with a passing cloud and describes to her the road along which she will have to fly (ed. Wilson, from English translation, Calcutta, 1813; Gildemeister, from the dictionary, Bonn, 1841; Stenzler , with dictionary and notes, Breslau, 1874. German translations: W. Hirzel, Zurich, 1846; elegant poetic by Max Müller, Konigsberg, 1847; prose Schütz, with notes, Bielefeld, 1859, and metrical Fritze, Chemnitz. 1879. Text and English translation by H. Wilson, 3rd ed., London 1867). The descriptive element is even brighter in another poem by Kalidasa - Rtusankhara (description of the six I. seasons), exposing the rich observation, subtle understanding of the beauties of nature and the living, vivid imagination of the author, who skillfully avoids the monotony and lifelessness of this kind of poems (published back in 1792). , in Calcutta, the founder of I. philology, then from Latin and German. translation. Another voluminous lyric poem is Ghatakarpara (see), probably from the 6th century. according to R.H., very artificial in form and content. The erotic poem Chaurapanchashika (50 stanzas of Chaura), or simply Panchashika, is also remarkable. The author describes his love happiness in bright and voluptuous images. Its author was probably Bilkhana, who, according to Bühler, lived in the 2nd half of the 11th century. (see W. Solf, "Die Kaçmîr-Recension der Pañcacika", Kiel, 1886, introduction); According to legend, he was in a secret relationship with the royal daughter, was discovered and sentenced to death. While awaiting execution, he composed his poem, which won him forgiveness and the hand of the princess (ed. R. v. Bohlen, Berl., 1833, together with Bhartrhari; metr. German translation by A. Hoefer, “Indische Gedichte”, Lpts., 1844 , vol. I). Other lyrical works of I. of the Middle Ages are short poems, in concise words and a few features giving an image, mood or some situation. In this respect, they resemble sayings - a form of poetry much loved by the Hindus and which has reached high perfection. These miniatures, revealing in a few, but subtle and gentle features, the most refined and rich observation and depth of impression, also represent a special sophistication and sophistication in formal terms. Their whimsical metrics are so unique that they cannot be conveyed by means of another language and certainly require familiarity with them in the original. These are the works of Bhartŗhari, who was at one time a poet, grammarian and philosopher (7th century AD). Judging by the surviving news of the whale. writer I-Tsing, Bhartrhari was a restless, artistic person, constantly carried away and fickle; Having become interested in Buddhism, he became a monk, but then, again seduced by worldly joys, he left the community, returned to it again, and left again, which he did seven times. He was aware of his shortcoming, but could not cope with it (see Mach Müller, "Indien in seiner weltgeschichtl. Bedeutung", p. 302). What remained from him were three shatakas (hundreds) of excellent little poems, the first of which is of erotic content, and the other two are in the nature of sayings and full of wit and humor. The first shataka, or Srngarashatakam (shataka of love), is full of grace and humor, sometimes very closely reminiscent of Heine. In conclusion, the poet becomes disillusioned with the joys of love and longs for peace and solitude in quiet forests. The third Shataka is dedicated to self-denial and its praise. The above-mentioned Bhattikavya is also attributed to Bharthari (text of his shatak ed. R. v. Bohlen, B., 1833, variants Schiffner and Weber, 1850; metrical German translation R. v. Boblen, Gamb., 1835; French translation . R. Regnaud, II., eng. Wortham. Kalidasa is attributed to Srngaratilaka (ornament of love) - a collection of small erotic poems, graceful and tender (ed. Gildemeister, together with Meghadûta Kalidasa, Bonn, 1841). The main work is erotic. Hindu lyrics is Amarushatakam (100 stanzas of Amaru), whose author is a great master in depicting different love situations: first bashful love, lovesickness, jealousy, expectation, love quarrels and reconciliations, etc. Despite the monotony of situations, Amaru does not fall into monotony and always finds new and original features and images (published back in 1808 in Calcutta. Text from French translation. ed. . Apudy, "Anthologie érotique d"Amarou", P., 1831; German translation by Rückert in "Museenalmanach", 1831. Prose German translation by Bötlingk in "Indische Sprüche", 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1870-73 . The latest edition of "Amaruçataka etc." von Simon, Kiel, 1893). Fine erotic poems are also found in one treatise on rhetoric of the 15th century, Sagityadarpana (mirror of poetry), where they are cited as examples (ed. in India several times: Roer, in "Biblioth. Indica", vol. X, 1851; English translation by Ballantyne, German translation of samples from Bötlingk, "Indische Sprüche"). Examples of similar poems by other poets can be found in the same treatises: Kavyadarsha (mirror of poetry). ), Dandina (published in "Bibliotheca Indica", 1863; in Calcutta, 1877, 1882; Lpts., 1890), Kavyaprakasha (light of poetry, ed. Calcutta, 1866, 1876) XII century. (German prose translation of Bötlingk in "Indische Sprüche", where there are similar works by other poets). In addition to the above-mentioned works, noteworthy is the Saptashatakam (700 stanzas) of the poet Hâla, an extensive anthology of small lyrical poems written in Prakrit. Most of them also have erotic content. Along with voluptuous liberties, there are many charming things here: some of a purely lyrical nature, others - miniatures, genre pictures (published by Weber, with a prose German translation, in "Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenländes", vol. VII, No. 4, Lpc. , 1881. Translation of the first 400 stanzas in the same place, vol. V, no. 3). Quite a large number of Gala's poems were translated well by Brunnhofer ("Ueber den Geist der indischen Lyrik", Lpts., 1882). The transitional link from lyrics to drama is the famous lyrical-dramatic poem “Gitagovinda” (song of the shepherd) by the poet Jayadeva, who lived in the 12th century. according to R.H., probably in Bengal (see Jayadeva). Its content: the love of Krishna (the incarnation of Vishnu) for the beautiful shepherdess Radha, their quarrel and successful reconciliation. Gitagovinda is of great historical and literary interest due to the similarity that can be seen in it with the so-called yatras, folk dramatic performances that have survived to this day in Bengal (see about them “Nisikânta Chattopâdhyâya of Calcutta. The Yâtrâs or the popular dramas of Bengal ", Leningrad, 1882; doctoral dissertation of the University of Zurich). Yatras usually depict various incidents from the life of Krishna and consist of songs followed by improvised dialogue. The characters are also Krishna, Radha, his father, mother, shepherdesses and the joker Narada. They form a necessary accessory to the cult of Krishna and originate from the ceremonies and processions performed during this cult. In this respect, they represent a complete parallel with the Christian mysteries. It is highly probable that these yatras, or semi-lyrical representations of the life of Krishna, originate from. of ancient times, Gitagovinda is nothing more than such a yatra, only passed through the imagination of a talented poet. Its similarity with yatras makes it very likely that Lassen’s assumption that the drama developed from the cult of Vishnu and that Gitagovinda, despite its belonging to a later time. , is an example or reflection of such a primitive dramatic work. On certain days dedicated to the celebration of Vishnu-Krishna, the most remarkable scenes and incidents from the life of this god were performed before the assembled people. Dancing, singing and music played an important role in this, and dialogue, or the prosaic speech necessary in certain places, was left to the ingenuity of the performers. Of such festive performances similar to it. Singspiel"and, I. drama developed, like the Greek one, from the celebrations of Dionysus. Gitagovinda is also interesting in the sense that its sensual erotic paintings and images are interpreted by I. brahmans in a mystical sense, which, it seems, was partly the intention of the author himself. Mutual the love of Krishna and Radha, their separation and the desire for union, which is finally achieved, should depict the passionate desire of the human soul for the supreme deity and merging with him. In this respect, the Gitagovinda presents a striking parallel with the biblical Song of Songs (ed. Lassen, from lat. trans., Bonn, 1836; Prose German translation by Dahlberg, Erfurt, 1802; poem by Riemschneider, Halle, 1818. Rückert's best translation, masterfully conveying the formal subtleties of the original, in "Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenländes" vol. I. English translation by Arnold, “The Indian song of songs”, L., 1876). Greek, which could have been brought to India by the Greeks of Alexander the Great, was exhibited by Windisch (“Der griechische Einfluss im indischen Drama,” in “Verhandlungen des fünften international. Orientalisten-Congresses, gehalten zu Berlin", 1881, 2 hours .: "Abhandlungen und Vorträge", 2 floors B., 1882), but without much success. The Hindus themselves consider the mythical person Bharata to be the inventor of drama, who performed dances and theatrical plays before the gods, with the Gandharvas (see) and Apsaras serving as his actors. Many sutras, or rules of performing arts, are also attributed to him. The oldest play performed by Bharata is called "The Selection of the Groom by Goddess Lakshmi" (wife of Vishnu), which again indicates the role played by the cult of Vishnu in the history of I. drama. But the word Bharata itself means, by the way, “actor,” so perhaps in his person we have a very common personification among Hindus (of dramatic art). In many folk I. dialects, bharata also means “singer,” on which Lassen already based his assumption about the prominent role of singing in the beginnings of I. drama. There is no doubt that dancing played an equally important role in them. From the root nat (the Prakrit form of nart - to dance) a whole series of forms are produced, meaning different concepts of stagecraft: the causative nâtayati = to represent in persons, nâtya - dance, facial expressions, acting, nata and nâtaka masculine - actor (i.e. primarily dancer), neuter gender - drama and precisely its highest gender. Whatever the first beginning of I. drama, its development was rich and varied. All dramatic works were divided into: 1) rûpaka, i.e. dramatic works upper class, and 2) uparûpaka - dramatic plays of the lowest order. In the first there were 10 genera, and in the second 18. Some of the divisions were based on purely external, often strained and insignificant features, which is explained by the Hindus' predilection for refined and cunning systematization, but in any case indicates a remarkable development of drama. The highest gender is nâtaka; the plot should be serious and important and taken from history or mythology (example: Shakuntala Kalidasa); the characters can only be princes, demigods and gods; the plot should be based only on love or heroism; the number of acts is not less than five and not more than ten. A playful and comic element, however, is allowed; a tragic end is generally impossible in I. drama. The death of the hero or heroine should not even be mentioned. In general, the requirements of decency and etiquette excluded a lot of stage situations, both serious and comic. Thus, the following were not allowed on stage: hostile challenge, curse, expulsion, demotion, national disasters; It was forbidden to bite, scratch, kiss, eat, sleep, bathe, smear yourself and get married (see. Wilson, "Select Specimens of the Theater of the Hindus", 2 ed. London, 1835). The second genus of the first class, prakāraṇa (work), is close to nâtaka, but less serious. The plot (most appropriately, love) should be played out in decent society; the actors may be ministers, brahmins or respected merchants; the heroine is from a good family or hetaera (like the Greeks, she was respected). Example: Mrchhakatika Shudraki. Pragasana (laughter, ridicule) was a small one-act play of a satirical or comic nature. It ridiculed hypocrisy or sensuality. The characters could be: an ascetic, a king, a brahman, a swindler. Of the uparupaka, the highest is nâtika, which differs from nâtaka only in the number of acts (no more than 4). An example is Ratnavali (see below). Then mention should be made of trotaka (tearing) in acts 5, 7, 8 and 9; the action takes place either on earth or in heaven. Example - Urvashi Kalidasa. Formal features of I. drama: each play begins with a prologue, before which a special prayer or blessing (nândî) is read; then follows a concise message about the play being performed and its author, after which, in a dialogue, the director of the troupe and one of its members seem to ask for the favor of the audience, pointing at the end to the characters who will appear. The number of acts is from 1 to 10, sometimes it is determined, sometimes it is provided to the author (within known boundaries); The duration of action in one act is no more than a day, but whole years can pass between several acts. In Shakuntala, in the last act, the heroine’s little son appears, the fruit of her love, which is just beginning in the first act. In another drama, even 12 years pass between the first and second acts. The unity of place is also not respected (as in a romantic drama); a change of place can occur during one act, and the action is transferred even to heaven, to the airy kingdom of nymphs, demons and demigods. The number of persons is not limited and is often very significant. The language is very diverse. Each character speaks in a special dialect: kings, heroes, brahmins and generally men of the upper class speak Sanskrit, and women and men of the lower class speak Prakrit (see). In the latter case, there is again a connection between the social position of the character and the language of his speeches: women of the upper classes sing in the Prakrit dialect of Magarashtri, but their dialogue is conducted in the Shauraseni dialect; the latter is also spoken by children, cleaner maids, eunuchs, etc.; other people speak other dialects (Magadhi, Abhiri, Avanti), and the most despicable people speak paishachi (coal miners, scullery maids) and apabhramshi (barbarians, etc.) dialects. d.). For details, see Lassen, "Institutiones linguae pracriticae", Bonn, 1837. The stage arrangement was simple, and the imagination of the listeners had to complement much (as in the theater of Shakespeare's time). There were no special theaters, as well as complex sets and machines. The kings had special chambers in their palaces (Samgîta-çâlâ, i.e., concert hall), in which dramatic performances probably took place. The curtain was at the back of the stage; behind it were the restrooms (nepathya), from where the actors appeared and where they hid. This curtain bore the mysterious name yavanikâ, that is, Ionic, Greek curtain, which was cited as one of the proofs of the Greek influence on the Indian theater. One of the arguments in favor of this influence was the presence of a special comic character in the so-called I. drama. vidushaka (q.v.), which was compared to the cunning slave trustee (servus currens) of Greco-Roman comedy. But vidushaka is completely an I. product, and such jesters are still found at the courts of native princes. Rather, he can be compared to Shakespeare's jester. In general, I. drama in form and content is very reminiscent of Shakespeare’s techniques. The absence of types and the desire for characteristic individuality, romantic freedom in dealing with the conditions of place and time, the absence of three unities, the motley change of poetic and prose speech, even the nature of humor, wordplay, contrasts of the serious and the comic in the same play, the fantastic element - all this sometimes has a completely Shakespearean character (mutatis mutandis). The era of the highest prosperity of I. drama extends from the 5th to the 8th or 9th centuries. according to R.H. In the V-VI centuries. lived Shudraka, the author of the comedy "Mrchhakatika" (clay carriage), in VI - Kalidasa (see), in VII - Sri Garsha, the alleged author of the plays "Ratnavali" and "Nagananda"; and in VIII - Bhavabhuti. Visakhadatta (q.v.), the author of the play Mudrarakshasa, remarkable in many respects, probably lived in the 7th-8th centuries. VI century In general, it should be noted as the golden age of classical I. literature. This includes the activities of Kalidasa, not only the greatest I. playwright, but also the author of the most revered poems after the Ramayana and Mahabharata - “Kumarasambhava”, “Raghuvansha”, “Meghaduta” and “Rtusankhara”. In the same century, the fairy tale and fable already achieved such fame that the Persian king ordered the Panchatantra to be translated; At the same time lived the novelist Dandin (q.v.), the lyricist Ghatakarpara (q.v.), the author of sayings Vetalabhatta and such scientists as the astronomer Varagamigira (q.v.), philologists Amarasinha and Vararuchi (q.v.). ), philosopher Dignaga and many others. other. Next VII Art. gave the poet and scientist Bhartrhari (see above), the novelists Ban and Subandhu, the playwright Dhavaka, etc.; At the same time, such learned works as Kashika (a learned commentary on the very difficult to read works of the famous grammarian Panini) were written. Three dramas are attributed to Kalidasa: the most famous of them is "Shakuntala", then comes "Urvashi or Vikramorvashi" (q.v.) and finally "Malavikagnimitrama", i.e. "Malavika and Agnimitra". The first two are true representatives of romantic fairy-tale and fantasy drama; the latter is more reminiscent of the latest plays, built on complex, intricate intrigue. The plots of the first two are borrowed from ancient legends or sagas found in epics and even in Vedic literature (Urvashi - in Shatapatha Brahmana). The content of the latter is taken from the life of I. kings; light court and harem intrigue forms the core of the play. The general character of Kalidasa's dramatic works is extraordinary harmony, immediate ambiguity and subtlety of all motives, moods and situations. Nothing harsh, scary, dark or repulsive, no harsh contrasts. An unusually subtle sense of artistic proportion is diffused in all the smallest details, smoothing out everything that could make a harsh impression, and giving all the contours of the play graceful softness and harmony. In this respect, Kalidasa can be compared to Raphael and Mozart (as a dramatic composer). It is not surprising that this sense of beauty and proportion in Kalidasa so captivated Goethe (for literature, see Kalidasa, Vikramorvashi). Completely different from Kalidasa's dramas is Shudraka's Mrchhakatika. There is not a trace of Kalidasa's softness and tenderness, the fantasticness here. The plot of the play is taken from real life (the mutual love of the rich hetaera Vasantasena and the poor but noble Charudatta, ending with their union and elevation of the hetaera to the dignity of a legal wife) and brings out a whole series of living and vibrant characters created by I. life. The play is full of life, humor and wit and presents many strong dramatic passages, proving the remarkable versatility of I. the genius who created such two completely dissimilar creative individuals as Kalidasa and Shudraka. Dramas attributed to the Kashmiri king Srigarsha or Srigarshadeva date back to the 7th century: Ratnavali (String of Pearls), apparently inspired by Malavika and Agnimitra; "Nagapanda" ("Joy of the Serpent") - a decorative item with a strong Buddhist connotation, and "Priyadarshika" ("Pleasant to the eye"). For literature see Srigarsha. In the 8th century lived Bhavabhuti, who is considered, together with Kalidasa and Shudraka, the third outstanding I. playwright. Three dramas from Bhavabhuti have survived: Malatimadhava (Malati and Madhava), Magaviracharita (Life and Deeds of a Great Hero) and Uttararamacharita ( further fate Frames). The first presents in ten acts the love story of Malati, the daughter of a minister, for young man Madhav, the son of a minister from another princely state studying in Ujjaini. Into this main plot is very cleverly introduced the story of another love, Madhava's friend (Makaranda) for Madayantika (ed. Calcutta, 1830, 1876, with an excellent introduction, ed. Bhandarkar, Bombay, 1876; Madras, 1883. English translation ed. Wilson, in "Select Specimens of the theater of the Hindus", with cat made in German transl., Wolf: "Theater der Hindus", Weimar, 1828-1831. Good poem. German translation by Fritze, Lpc ., 1884; Reclam "Univ. Bibl.", No. 1844; fr. transl., P. 1885). The second play depicts the story of Rama with minor deviations from the Ramayana. Ed.: Trithen (L., 1848), Anundoram Borooach (Kalk., 1877), Jibananda Vidyasagara (ibid., 1873). English translation: Pickford (Lond., 1871). The third play depicts the fate of Rama and Sita upon their return to their homeland (published in Calcutta, 1831, 1862, 1881; Madras, 1882. English translation by Wilson , "Select. Specimens of the Theater of the Hindus", Calc., 1826. French. F. Nève, Brussels, 1880). Bhavabhuti's plays are rich in poetic beauty. He succeeds in describing nature; he is a master at depicting intimate, tender and subtle moods and delicate, subtle characters. Along with this, he also well conveys deep, strong passion, especially love, sublime and noble characters. It is remarkable that the comic element is in the background and there is no vidushaka in all the plays (see the general description of Bhavabhuti in Anundoram Borooah, "Bhavabhûti and his place in Sanscrit Literature", Calcutta, 1878, and also in the introduction of the French translation "Uttararâmacarita "Neve). Also remarkable is the drama “Mudrakshasa” (seal of the minister Rakshasa) by the poet Visakhadatta (q.v.), whose life time has not yet been determined with precision (7th-8th centuries, perhaps). The action is based on political intrigue; the play reveals great dramatic talent; lots of life, movement and exciting interest. In the 10th century Venisanhara (Braiding) by the poet Bhatta Narayana was already known and popular. The plot of this six-act play is taken from the Mahabharata; poetic merits are small (see Venisanhara). Around 900, Rajashekhara lived, from whom four dramas remained: “Balaramayana” (the story of the child Rama; ed. Govinda Deva Sâstri, Benares, 1869; Jîvânanda Vidyâsâgara, Kalk., 1884), “Prachandapandava” (“The Wrathful Descendant of Pandu” ), or "Balabharata" (child of Bharata; ed. Koppeller, Strasb., 1885), "Viddhashalabhanjika" (ed. Jîvânanda Vidyâsâgara, Calcutta, 1883) and "Karpuramanjari" (ed. in the Indian magazine "Pandit", vol. VII). In the 11th century there lived Kshemendra, or Kshemisvara, and Damodara Misra. The first left the drama "Chandakaushika" (wrathful Kaushika; ed. Jayanmohana Çarman, 1867; German translation by Fritze, Lpc.; cheap edition. Advertising No. 1726), and the second - "Ganumannataka" (drama about Ganuman), or "Maganataka" (great drama), in 14 acts, not high in artistic terms. The poet Jayadeva (not the author of Gitagovinda) owns the drama "Prasannaraghava" (the meek descendant of Raghu, i.e. Rama; ed. Govinda Deva Sâstri, Benares, 1868; Madras, 1882, 3rd ed.). In conclusion, it is necessary to mention the six-act drama of Krishna-Mishra "Prabodhachandrodaya", i.e. the rise of the month of knowledge. It belongs to the later works of the I. theater (the earliest is the 12th century) and is one of the most original and remarkable dramas. This is the most complete allegory of theological and philosophical content, aimed at glorifying orthodox Brahmanism, with a touch of Vaishnavism. The characters are all abstract concepts, allegories and symbols, and yet the play is full of life, dramatic interest and force (text ed. Brockhaus, Lpc., 1835-1845, also in Calcutta, 1874; German translations by Goldstücker, ed. Rosenkranz , Königsberg, 1842, and W. Hirzel, Zurich, 1846). Heroes of the play: the supreme spirit, the ability to imagine, revelation, eloquence, reflection, dispassion, will, correct knowledge, the king-reason and his wife-opinion, religion and her daughter - calmness, friendship, sound judgment, patience, compassion, book learning, hypocrisy, king-error, Brahman-outward holiness, their retinue: voluptuousness, selfishness, anger, stinginess, etc. Both kings, Reason and Error, are opposed to each other, and the first ultimately wins. After the 12th century the dramatic literature of the Hindus continues to exist, although it is not able to achieve the perfection of the works of the golden age. The plots of more serious dramas are mostly borrowed from the epic or from the legend of Krishna-Vishnu. Nearby there are also more or less voluminous farces and comedies, most of them of a very crude nature. The artistic merit of all these belated fruits is low. In addition to epic, lyricism and drama, Indian poetry represents another original type of poetry, which is very rare in other literatures - this is partly known to us from a review of other types of ind. creativity poetry sayings. In the sayings of the Hindus there are a lot of deep, sublime, noble, often amazing and original ideas expressed in a clear and elegantly artistic form. Collections of such sayings are relatively rare: these are two shatakas (hundreds) of Bhartrhari out of his three (see above): “Nitishataka” (shataka of everyday experience) and “Vairagyashataka” (shataka of disappointment, indifference), then the anonymous collections “Shantishataka” (shataka peace of mind) and "Mohamudgara" (hammer for stupidity); Most of the sayings are scattered throughout various other works: fairy tales and fables (Gitopadesha, Panchatantra), epics (especially the Mahabharata), the laws of Manu, etc. All sayings are collected, with an excellent German translation, in Bötlingk ("Indische Sprüche", St. Petersburg . 1863-1865; 2nd ed., more complete, 1870-73); Shataka Bhartrhari published by R. v. Bohlen (with Latin translation, Berlin, 1833; his German poetic translation, Hamburg, 1835), the last two shatakas, “Niti- and Vairagya”, ed. Kashinath Trimbak Telang (Bombay, 1874). Extract from the collection of Bötlingk (387 sayings) in the poetic translation of L. Fritze (Lpc., Reсlam "Universal Biblioth."). The first Dutch translation of two shatakas of Bhartrhari was published by Abraham Roger ("Open Deure") back in 1651; was a German translation ("Neueröffnetes Indisches Heidenthum", Nuremberg, 1663), which served Herder for his "Gedanken eines Brahmanen".
Hindu grammatical literature. In linguistics, the Hindus stood above all other peoples of antiquity, not excluding the Greeks. Their observations of living language were distinguished by remarkable accuracy, reminiscent of the method of modern physiological phonetics. The analysis of the forms of the native language made by I. grammarians also served European linguists, who began to study Sanskrit only in the present century and only thanks to this study put linguistics on the real, correct path. The analytical direction of the Indian grammar school was reflected even in the word meaning grammar: vуâkarаnа = decomposition, analysis. The concepts of root, suffix and prefix have been empirically established by Indian grammarians, and the morphological analysis of a word into its component parts has been carried out with great skill and care; the study of phonetics, sound laws, and the determination of the conditions under which sounds change or disappear are distinguished by truly scientific accuracy, surprising all the more so since the Hindus lacked it in other branches of science. It was very beneficial for the Indian grammar school that the study of language and grammar was developed on the sacred Vedic texts, each letter of which was sacred and required the deepest respect. This accustomed Indian grammarians to the precision and thoroughness that distinguishes their work (for a general outline of the Indian grammar school, see Benfey, "Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft", Munich, 1869, pp. 35-100). The awakening of interest in language among Indians is very early; the etymological convergence of words and the explanation of their composition, often quite correct, is already a very common technique in the most ancient Brahmans (see above). The oldest grammatical works of the Hindus are the so-called Padapatha of Vedic texts and Nighantavas (Vedic glosses). The first represent a special form of the Vedic text, in which words that are usually combined in Sanskrit with each other, and the final sounds of one and the initial sounds of the other in a known way influence each other and often undergo significant changes (the so-called rules of sanddhi), are separated and given unchanged. This separation, which was necessary for an accurate understanding of the sacred texts (because the popular language had already moved away in its development from the ancient Vedic), was a very difficult matter and drew attention to the phonetic laws according to which sanddhi changes occur. This work, attributed to the ancient grammarians Shakalya and Gargya (the former for the Rigveda, the latter for the Samaveda), marked the beginning of Indian grammatical science. Nighantavas (glosaries) or Naighantukam are nothing more than a collection of Vedic glosses (in 5 books), intended for oral teaching; Incomprehensible and difficult Vedic words are collected and explained here. The explanation lies largely in a comparison of synonyms; in 4 books. Particularly difficult words are collected, and in the 5th, the names of the gods found in the Vedas. This work was extremely necessary for understanding the texts, because the difference between Vedic Sanskrit and the later one was especially great in lexico-semasiological terms. The Vedas became difficult to understand to the point that the ancient philosopher Kautsa, a contemporary or predecessor of the grammarian Yaska (5th century BC), argued that the Vedas are nonsense, since they consist of unclear words . To Nighantavas Yaska composed the famous commentary "Nirukta" (explanation), extremely important for the history of India. linguistics (ed. Roth, "Yâskâ"s Nirukta sammt den Nighantavas", Gotting., 1852). Yaska lived long before the famous Indian grammarian Panini (half of the 4th century BC); between them there were several more famous grammarians (see Benfey, "Geschichte der Sprachwiss.", p. 47), so that Yaska must be dated to the 5th, if not the 6th, century BC. The Nighantavas themselves were composed several centuries before Panini and, therefore, long before Yaska. “Nirukta” contains an explanation of the Nighantavas and the most difficult passages in the Vedas in general; the first grammatical information is also provided here and various ancient grammars are listed. In addition, “Nirukta” is the first monument of classical Sanskrit itself, different from Vedic (see Sanskrit). At this time, I. grammar was already at a fairly high stage of development: the concepts of root and formative elements had already been developed, and the sound changes that occurred when connecting these parts of the word were established; the phonetically changed and intact forms of suffixes differed from each other; , and it was found that the differences between them are secondary and due to phonetic reasons. Yaska's grammatical terminology is the same as that later used by Panini. Among the grammarians cited by Yaska, Shakatayana is especially remarkable. Judging by the grammar attributed to him (excerpt from the ed. Bühler in Benfey's journal "Orient und Occident", vol. II, 691-706; cf. also vol. III, pp. 182-84, 192; complete ed. G. Oppert, Madras, 1893), then Panini only corrected and supplemented his work. Shakatayana was the first to argue that the names of creatures. and adjective come from verbal roots. In the controversy that ensued between him and other grammarians, among whom Gargya (q.v.) was especially prominent, Shakatayana gained the upper hand. Jaska took his side, and later Panini too. From this polemic it is clear how far the grammar school has gone in its development even in such a distant era. The highest point of rise in the development of I. linguistics (all I. grammarians - the predecessors of Panini - there are 64) is represented by the grammarian of the 4th century. BC Panini (see), who left 8 books of grammatical rules (about 4000) - the first systematic work of the I. grammatical school that has come down to us. The rules of his grammar are distinguished by extraordinary conciseness and brevity. This conciseness is achieved, among other things, by an ingenious terminology consisting of arbitrarily chosen sounds, having a purely algebraic conventional character and distinguished by strict consistency. Science owes the explanation of Panini’s unusually difficult to read works to our academician O. N. Bötlingk (“Panini’s acht Bücher grammatischer Regeln”, Bonn, 1839-1840; 2nd ed. from the German translation “Panini’s Grammatik”, Leipzig, 1886-87). Panini's extraordinary difficulty has given rise to a number of explainers and commentators. The oldest commentaries on it: Paribhasha, the author of which is unknown, then Varttikas, beginning of the 2nd century. BC, Katyayana and the great commentary Mahabhashya (great commentary) grammar of Patanjali, who probably lived about half of the 2nd century BC (see "Zeitschrift des deutschen Morgenl. Gesellsch.", vol. XXXIX, 528-531). Since then, Hindu grammatical literature has grown and developed and contains many important works. Next to Panini, there were other grammarians, each with their own system and terminology. Already Jaska and Panini distinguished between the eastern and northern schools of grammarians. There was also the so-called Aindra school (see Burnell, "On the Aindra School of Sanscrit Grammarians", Mangalore, 1876; Kielhorn, "Çantanava's Phitsûtra", Leipz., 1866). Of the later grammatical works, the commentaries on Panini are remarkable Kashika, grammarians Vamaa and Jayaditya, who lived in the 7th century AD (ed. Bâla Çâstri, Benares, 1876-78). Vararuchi (see) did a lot for the study of Prakrit (see) in the 6th century AD. H. and Gemacandra (q.v.) of the 12th century. In the 13th century lived Vopadeva (q.v.), the author of an easy grammar for beginners - “Mugdhabodha” (enlightenment of the fool), who also provided services to European Sanskritists in the field of lexicography. Nighantavas. The first and most important real Sanskrit dictionary is “Amarakosha”, the author of which is Amara, Amaradeva or Amarasinha, who lived at the court of Kalidasa among his nine “pearls”, i.e. in the 6th century A.D. For Europeans. dictionaries (especially for the dictionary of Bötlingk and Roth) he provided major services (ed. Colebrooke 1808, then in Bombay 1877, ed. Kielhorn "a. 2nd ed. 1882, 4th - 1890. From the French translation. Loiseleur Deslongchamps, Par., 1839-45. Published several times in India). Special view dictionaries are represented by the so-called Dhatupatha or Dhatuparayana (see), i.e., lists of roots (literature I. lexicography in Zachariae, “Beiträge zur indischen Lexicographie”, Berl., 1883). Among the treatises on rhetoric and poetics, the oldest and most important monument is the Natyashastra (the doctrine of the performing arts) of Bharata, who lived, according to Regnaud ("La Rhétorique Sanscrite", Par., 1884), in the 1st century. according to R.H., and according to the more probable opinion of Pichel - no earlier than the 6th century. according to R.H. (see "Göttinger Gelehrt. Anzeiger", 1885, No. 19, pp. 763-4). Only parts were published (4 chapters ed. Hall in the holy edition of "Daçarûpa", 1865, two chapters from the French translation by R. Regnaud, Par., 1880, two other chapters in his "Rhétorique Sanscrite"). By the 6th century belongs to the already mentioned treatise by Dandin “Kavyadarsha” (mirror of poetry; published in “Bibl. Ind.” in 1863, in Kalk., 1882. From German translation by Böhtlingk, Lpts., 1890), to the 8th century. (probably) - rhetorician Vamana (q.v.), whose poetics are called "Kavyalankaravrtti" (ed. Kappeller, Jena, 1875) and Anundoram Borooah (Calcutta and Leningrad, 1883). Textbooks on rhetoric and poetics were highly respected among the Hindus: “Kavyaprakasha” (“Light of Poetry”), compiled by Mammata or Alata, probably in the 11th-12th centuries. (ed. Cowell, Calcutta, 1866, Jivapanda Vidyasagara, ibid., 1876) and “Sagityadarpana” (“Mirror of Poetry”) from the half of the 15th century. (ed. several times, eg in "Bibl. Indica", E. Röеr, 1851, Jivananda Vidyasagara, Calc., 1874), probably compiled in Bengal.
The legal literature of the Hindus is of great importance for the history of Indian culture. For a long time, the laws of Manu were considered the most ancient code of the Hindus, playing a primary role among them; the first Europeans to study India, W. Jones and A. W. f. Schlegel, attributed it to the XIII-XI centuries. BC The study of Vedic literature, which began only in the 40s. This century, however, soon showed that the laws of Manu are not at all so ancient and belong to the classical post-Vedic eloh. At present, there is almost no doubt that this monument dates back to our era (maybe to the 4th-5th centuries). Thus, in this field of study, relatively recently (the last 20-25 years) there has been an almost complete revolution. In the monuments of I. law, in connection with the dominant significance of religion in the public and private life of Hindus, religious instructions (rules of purification, for reading the Vedas, for burying the dead, determining the conditions of metempsychosis for criminals, etc.) are mixed with purely legal ones. The most ancient codes of the Hindus - so called. dharmasutras (see), dating back to the Vedic era (its newest departments ), V-VI centuries. BC; From them, poetic codes, so-called, were later developed. Dharmasastras are written in epic couplets (slokas), while Dharmasutras are written mainly in prose. The most ancient dharmashastra (guide to the law) is the Manavadharmashastra, or the Lawyer Manu (see Manu), which, however, has nothing in common with the mythical Manu mentioned in the Vedas, Mahabharata and other ancient monuments of Indian literature. He probably came from the Vedic school of Manava, which traced its origins to the ancient Manu, i.e., most likely simply adopted his name. However, she should have only owned the prototype of the Manavadharmashastra - the Manavadharmasutra, which has not reached us, but can be assumed with high probability (for literature, see Manu and Dharmasutra). Next to the Manavadharmasastra there were quite a few other poetic dharmasastras, among which the most valuable is the Yajnavalkya code, although less famous than the laws of Manu, but which had a huge influence on the subsequent development of Indian law; it is followed by the civil law code Naradasmrti and a number of metrical codes called smrti (tradition, memory), numbering more than 100 (see Smrti). From the 9th century an extensive literature of commentary and digest begins, continuing into modern times. The oldest surviving commentary on the laws of Manu is the Manubhashya (commentary on Manu) by the jurist Medhatitha, probably from the 9th century. according to R.H. He has quotations from commentators who preceded him, unfortunately, lost. Following him should be named commentators: Govindaraj (q.v.), between the 11th and 15th centuries, and Kulluk, who used the works of the first and lived probably in the 16th century. In the 15th century lived Narayana (c. 1497), in the 16th century. Raghunandana or Raghavananda and even later Nandanacharya. Of the commentaries on the laws of Yajnavalkya, the Mitakshara, compiled by Vijnanesvara from Kalyanapura (in the Nizam) at the end of the 11th or beginning of the century, is important. XII century It is the best known and most important monument of all the legal literature of the Hindus, and was already early in force over a very large part of India. Its importance increased even more under English. dominion, when his 14th and 15th books, treating of inheritance, were translated into English. language (Colebrook). Until recently, it was studied in all schools of Indian law as its basis and most important authority (ed., together with Zak. Yajnavalkya, Babu Roma, Calcutta, 1812). Proof of his authority is also the large number of commentaries written, in turn, on him: in the 14th century. Mitaksharatika (commentary on Mitakshara), or Subodhini (easy to understand), compiled by Visweshvarabhatta on the orders of King Madanapal; in the 17th century compiled the same commentary by Nandapandit of Benares; probably by the 18th century. refers to the Bhalambhattika, composed by the woman Lakshmidevi. Other smrtis have also attracted comment: the Vishnusmrti was written by Vaijayanti (Indra's banner) by Nandapandita (in the 17th century). At present, there are five different legal schools (three in the north: in Benares, Bengal and Mithila, and two in the south: in Bombay and Madras), according to which digests and commentaries are distributed. The main codes of these schools have already been translated into English. language. Outside certain schools there are lawyers: Gemadri (q.v.), beginning of the 13th century, Dalapati (q.v.), around the 16th century, and Todarananda or Todaramalla, the famous minister of the empire. Akbar, i.e. XVI century. Most of the old codes and commentaries on them were compiled in the Deccan, which had the opportunity to live a more peaceful life, while in the north. India in the 11th century. the dark and bloody rule of the Muslim dynasties began, stopping all independent development. Only under the Great Mughals did the possibility of a calmer state life arise, and the rulers themselves called for and encouraged the drawing up of legal codes. The last of the big ind. collections of laws recognized by Indian courts was the collection of Jagannath, compiled at the end of the 18th century. on the initiative of the famous W. Jones and had a certain significance for the beginning of Sanskrit studies. Systematic work covering the entire field of ind. law, there is still none, except for I. D. Maune, “A Treatise on Hindu Law and Usage” (Madras and Leningrad, 1878) and Colebrooke’s outdated book “A Digest of Hindu law” (L., 1801, 3rd ed. Madras , 1865); in addition, the following are of a general nature: Nelson, “A prospectus of the scientific study of the Hindu law” (L., 1881); "The Institutes of Hindu law" (ed. by Iîbânanda Uidyâsâgara, Calcutta, 1885); W. Stokes, "Anglo-Indian codes" (Oxf., 1887-92; important for the cultural history of India). The rest are all monographs, mostly on inheritance law : "Colebrooke, two Treatises on the Hindu law of inheritance" ( Calcutta , 1810); Mayr, "Das indische Erbrecht" (B., 1873); R. West and G. Bühler, "A Digest of the Hindu law of Inheritance and Partition" (3 ed. Bombay , 1884); Dayabhaga, "The law of Inheritance" ( Calcutta , 1866); Burnell, "Dâya-Uibhâga, the law of Inheritance translat. from sanscrit" ( Madras , 1868); Foulkes, "The Hindu law of Inheritance. Translat. from sanscrit" ( L . 1881); Cochrani, "Hindoo Law; defense of Daya Bhaga etc." ( L ., 1875-87); "Dâyadaçaçlokî, summary of the Hindu law of inheritance" ( text and English transl., ed. Burnell, Mangalore , 1875); "Dattakaçiromani, a digest of the principal treatises of the law of adoption" ( Calc ., 1867); A. Rumsey, "A chart of Hindu family Inheritance" (2 ed. L ., 1880); Jolly, "Outlines of an History of the Hindu Law of Partition, Inheritance and Adoption, as contained in the original Sanscrit treatises" ( Calcutta, 1885; there is also general information on the history of ind. rights). On ordeals (God's courts), which played a fairly prominent role in I. law: Shtenzler , "Die indischen Gottesurtheile" ("Zeitschr. d. Deutschen Morgenländ. Gesellschaft", vol. IX, 1855); Schlagintveit , "Die Gottesurtheile der Indier" ( Munich, 1866). About the position of women : Jolly, "Ueber die rechtliche Stellung der Frauen bei den alten Indiern nach den Dharmaçâstra" ("Sitzungsberichte der philolog. histor. Classe der Akad. zu München", 1876); Kalthoff, "Jus matrimonii veterum Indorum" ( Bonn 1829). For various other questions : Jolly, "Ueber das ind. Schuldrecht" ("Sitzungsberichte d. phil. hist. Cl. d. Akad. zu München", 1877); his , "Ueber die Systematik des ind. Rechts"; J. Kohler, "Altind. Prozessrecht. Mit Anhang: Altind. Eigenthumserwerb" ( Stuttgart, 1891).
Literature. Scientific histories of I. literature: Max. Müller, "History of ancient sanscrit literature" ( L., 1859, 2nd ed. 1860, for the Vedic period ); A. Weber, "Akademische Vorlesungen über Literaturgeschichte" (1 ed. Berlin, 1852, 2nd addition, 1876, and Nachtrag to it, 1878 - compendium for specialists); L. von Schröder, “Indiens Literatur und Cultur in historischen Entwicklung” (Lpc., 1887, for a wide range of readers, with numerous passages in translation); I. P. Minaev, “Essay on the most important monuments of Sanskrit literature,” in Korsh’s “General History of Literature” (St. Petersburg, 1880, issue I). General essay with special excursions: M. Müller, “India: what can it teach us” (L., 1883, German translation .: "Indien in seiner weltgeschichtlichen Bedeutung", Lpts., 1884). From old books: R . v. Bohlen, "Das alte Indien" ( Koenigsberg, 1830). Bibliographical aids : Adelung, "Versuch einer Literatur der Sanskrit Sprache" ( St. Petersburg, 1830, 2nd ed. . 1837); Gildemeister, "Biblioteca sanscrîta sive recensus librorum sanscritorum" ( Bonn, 1847; both are outdated ); Aufrecht, "Catalogus catalogorum. Alphabetic. Register of sanscrit works and authors" ( Lpts., 1891). Magazine "Orientalische Bibliographie" in Berlin from 1887 (to 1893, vol. VI), ed. . Aug. Müller. P. Regnaud, "La langue et la littérature sanscrite, état présent de leur étude en Europe "(P., 1879). Selected studies and monographs : L.v. Schröder, "Poesie des indischen Mittelalters" ( Dorpat , 1882); Néve, "Les époques littéraires de l"Inde" ( Bruce ., 1883); Goldstücker, "Literary remains" ( by the way : The Veda, The inspired writings of Hinduism, Hindu epic poetry, L ., 1879); Summer, "Les héroïnes de Kalidasa et les héroïnes de Schakespeare" ( P ., 1878); Leumann, "Beziehungen der Jaina-Litteratur zu andern Literaturkreisen Indiens" ( Leiden, 1885 .); Soupé, "Etudes sur la littérature sanscrite" ( P ., 1877); Schermann, "Materialien zur Geschichte der indischen Visionslitteratur" ( LPC ., 1893); Colebrooke, "Ueber die heiligen Schrif ten der Indier" ( from English Poley, Lpc ., 1847); Loiseleur Deslongchamps, "Essai sur les fables indiennes" ( P., 1838). Popular and General Books : Ward, "A view of the history, literature and mythology of the Hindus, with translations from their principal works" ( illus. 5th ed. Madras , 1863), White, "Classical literature, principal Sanscrit, Greek etc. in the forms of sketches of authors and specimens from transl." (1877); Mrs. Mannings, "Ancient a. mediaeval India "(with illustration, L ., 1869); E. Reed, "Hindu literature" ( Chika go , 1891); G. Small, "Handbook of sanscr. literature" ( L., 1866). Translations and expositions: Fauche, "Une tétrade" (Par., 1861-1863: Mrchhakatika, Stava, Dashakumaracharita, Shishupalabadha); Ad. Holtzmann, "Indische Sagen" (from Ma gabharata, Karlsruhe, 1845-1847; 2nd ed. Stuttgart , 1852); Stokes, "Indian fairy tales" ( L ., 1880); Summer, "Contes et légendes de l"Inde ancienne" ( P., 1878); E. Arnold , "Indian idylls from the Sanscrit of the Mahabharata" ( L., 1883); his, "Indian poetry" (L . 1881); Griffith, "Specimens of old Indian poetry, translat." ( L ., 1852), Langlois, "Monuments littéraires, de l"Inde on mélanges de littérature sanscrite" ( P., 1827).
This search. It became the central doctrine of the Upanishads. Movement and change according to Indian thoughts are the basic properties of things, but the forces that cause movement are not... movement, as the Upanishads confirm. Buddha didn't say much about God. That's why first the idol among Buddhists was made in the image of the Buddha himself, and not of God... one of the most exaggerated forms of Scythian idolatry. Still tantric literature acknowledges that idolatry was intended for people of the lowest order, ...
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And saves a person from the cycle of rebirth. In the word "mantra" the syllable "man" comes from first the Sanskrit word for “think”, and “tra” from “trai”, which means “to protect”. Mantra... that mantras by their nature are of divine origin and are not works of literature, that is, they were not created with the help of intelligence. Mantras known to us... and suffering. One of the most popular and revered goddesses Indian pantheon. AUM GIRIJAYA VIDMAHE SIVAPRIYAYAYA DHIMAHI TANNO DURGA PRACHODAYAT...
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That this “aircraft eagle” has a propeller and fixed wings: “a bird flies and does not flap its wing.” Indian scientist, Dr. Gangadhar Tilak, in his work “The Arctic Homeland in the Vedas,” quotes from an ancient source (Rig-... give an explanation of this term. According Indian astrology, in addition to the 12 main signs of the Zodiac, there is an even more distant belt of 27 constellations from the earth. These 27 constellations are divided into 3 groups of 9 each. First the group belongs to the “divine”, the second - to the “human” and...
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It has been completely preserved and gives us the opportunity not only to understand much of what was lost by Western tradition, but also to restore specific old techniques. IN first turn is the dasa system - planetary periods and subperiods, which makes it possible Indian astrologers can make such accurate predictions (down to minutes!). We can find echoes of this system in the reduced system of firdars...
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He hardly heard. Unani medicine crystallized from Ayurveda at a time when the Muslims began to take over Indian subcontinent and some doctors found refuge in ancient Greece. They adopted the knowledge of Greek doctors, combining... 16. Prasuti Tantra (obstetrics and gynecology). Since the writing of Ayurvedic scriptures and Madhava, one of the most first There are now well-known commentators on the Sushruta Samhita, there were quite a few doctors who wrote commentaries on the main Ayurvedic texts...
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Monument to Yuri Nikulin in Baku
In the near future, a monument Yuri Nikulin. Interfax reports this with reference to the head of the department of the historical and cultural reserve "..." falling Nikulin ". The head of the department noted that the possibility of putting monument not Nikulin, but another actor who starred in the episode (Andrei Mironov), but in the end he was chosen first option. Meanwhile monument the characters of “The Diamond Arm,” as Komsomolskaya Pravda recently wrote, ...