Topic:"Explanation of the dependence of the location of large landforms and mineral deposits on the structure of the earth's crust on the example of individual territories."
Goals of the work: establish the relationship between the placement of large landforms and the structure of the earth's crust; check and evaluate the ability to compare maps, explain the identified patterns; using a tectonic map to determine the patterns of distribution of igneous and sedimentary minerals; explain the observed patterns.
^ Work progress
1. Comparing the physical and tectonic maps of the atlas, determine which tectonic structures correspond to the indicated landforms. Make a conclusion about the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust. Explain the observed pattern.
2. Arrange the results of the work in the form of a table.
| Landforms | Dominant Heights | Tectonic structures underlying the territory | Conclusion about the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust |
| the East European Plain | |||
| Central Russian Upland | |||
| West Siberian Lowland | |||
| Caucasus | |||
| Ural mountains | |||
| Verkhoyansk Range | |||
| Sikhote-Alin |
3. Using the map of the atlas "Tectonics and Mineral Resources", determine what minerals the territory of our country is rich in.
4. How are the types of igneous and metamorphic deposits indicated on the map? Sedimentary?
5. Which of them are found on the platforms? What minerals (igneous or sedimentary) are confined to the sedimentary cover? What are the protrusions of the crystalline foundation of ancient platforms on the surface (shields and arrays)?
6. What types of deposits (igneous or sedimentary) are confined to folded areas?
7. Arrange the results of the analysis in the form of a table, draw a conclusion about the established dependence.
^ Practical work No. 4
Topic:“Determination of the patterns of distribution of solar radiation, radiation balance from maps. Identification of the features of the distribution of average temperatures in January and July, the annual amount of precipitation throughout the country.
^ Objectives of the work: determine the patterns of distribution of total radiation, explain the patterns identified; to study the distribution of temperatures and precipitation across the territory of our country, to learn how to explain the reasons for such a distribution; learn to work with various climate maps, to make generalizations and conclusions based on their analysis.
^ Work progress
Look at figure 31 on page 59 in the textbook. How are the values of total solar radiation shown on the map? In what units is it measured?
Determine the total radiation for points located at different latitudes. Present the results of your work in the form of a table.
Draw a conclusion, what pattern can be seen in the distribution of total radiation. Explain your results.
Consider Figure 35 on page 64 of the textbook. How is the distribution of January temperatures across the territory of our country shown? How are the January isotherms in the European and Asian parts of Russia? Where are the areas with the highest temperatures in January located? The lowest? Where is the pole of cold in our country?
Conclude which of the main climate-forming factors has the most significant impact on the distribution of January temperatures. Write a summary in your notebook.
Look at figure 36 on page 65 in the textbook. How is the distribution of air temperature in July shown? Determine in which regions of the country the temperatures of July are the lowest, in which - the highest. What are they equal to?
Conclude which of the main climate-forming factors has the most significant impact on the distribution of July temperatures. Write a summary in your notebook.
Consider Figure 37 on page 66 of the textbook. How is the amount of precipitation shown? Where does the most precipitation fall? Where is the least?
Conclude which of the climate-forming factors have the most significant impact on the distribution of precipitation throughout the country. Write a summary in your notebook.
The Central Russian Upland occupies a central position among the Russian Plain. It stretches from the north-north-west to the south-south-east from the right bank of the Oka valley (Kaluga - Ryazan) to the Donetsk Ridge. From the west and east it is bordered by the Dnieper and Oka-Don lowlands. In the north, it serves as the watershed of the Desna, Oka and Don, to the south it forms the watershed of the Dnieper, Donets and Don.
The central part of the region can be considered the vicinity of the city of Orel, where its higher points are also located. This is the so-called Plavskoe plateau with a height of 310 m, where the rivers Zusha and the Beautiful Mecha originate. The most common heights for the watersheds of the Middle Russian Upland range from 220-250 m. Thus, the Middle Russian Upland rises above the lowest elevations of the Dnieper and Oka-Don lowlands by an average of 120-150 m.
In the southeast, the Don, cutting through the Central Russian Upland, separates from it the Kalach Upland with heights up to 234 m, which serves as the watershed of the Don and Khopra.
The surface of the Central Russian Upland is an undulating plain, dissected by deep valleys of rivers, gullies and branching ravines. The depth of the cut in places reaches 100 and even 150 m. From the Central Russian Upland, such rivers originate as the Oka with its numerous tributaries (Zusha, Upa, Zhizdra), the Don with tributaries Beautiful Sword, Pine, Silent Pine, Kalitva and others, Oskol , Northern Donets, Vorskla, Psel, Seim and a numerous network of smaller rivers and ravines and ravines confined to them.
As already noted in the general part of this work, the main orographic units of the Russian Plain, as a rule, correspond to the main structural units of the Russian Platform.
In this case, we observe the following: in the center of the Central Russian Upland, in the region of Kursk, Orel and Voronezh, crystalline rocks that make up the Voronezh anteclise lie high. Its axial part runs approximately along the line Pavlovsk (on the Don) - Kursk, where the cover of sedimentary rocks does not exceed 150-200 m, and in Pavlovsk, as is known, crystalline rocks are opened by the Don. In all directions from the axis, the sedimentary sequence strongly increases in thickness, and the Precambrian rocks gradually go to a greater depth (Fig. 1). The Voronezh anteclise has an asymmetric structure. Its northern slope is the southern flank of the Moscow syneclise, while the southern slope falls steeply to the Dnieper-Donetsk syneclise.
Rice. 1. Section through the Voronezh anteclise along the Don from Zadonsk to Pavlovsk and further south to Kantemirovka (according to A.D. Arkhangelsky, 1947): 1 - granite; 2 - Devonian (Voronezh, Semiluk and Shchigrov layers); 3 - Devonian (Evlanovsk and Yelets layers): 4 - Carboniferous rocks; 5 - Mesozoic sandy-argillaceous rocks of the ancient Cenomanian; 6 - upper chalk; 7 - Paleogene; 8 - Quaternary deposits
The northern slope of the Voronezh anteclise is covered by Devonian and Carboniferous layers, which are hidden by thin Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits.
The southern slope of the Voronezh anteclise descends very sharply, and with it the Paleozoic rocks that overlap it quickly go to depth, and the terrain is composed of rocks of the Cretaceous and Tertiary ages, which reach considerable thickness here.
On the northern slope of the Voronezh anteclise, the Devonian deposits are represented by dense thick-layered limestones with rare clay interlayers. In the Oka and Don basins, they are exposed by rivers. Near the axis of the Voronezh anteclise, the Devonian layers occur almost horizontally. In the direction of the Moscow syneclise, they detect a fall and increase their power. On the southern slope of the Voronezh massif, the Devonian layers dip steeply towards the Dnieper-Donets syneclise.
Research in recent years has established an extremely turbulent surface of the Devonian. This is largely due to the existence on the northern slope of the Voronezh block of the Yelets-Tula and Orlovsky tectonic uplifts, which create the Middle Russian swell of the Russian platform. Within this swell, the absolute marks of the Devonian roof reach 266–270 m, while the absolute marks of the modern surface of the hill are 290–300 m. part of the sea, the sea completely bypassed it. According to B. M. Dan'shin (1936), this uplift significantly influenced the distribution of the Quaternary glacier. It turned out to be the focus that made the glacier of the Dnieper time split into two large languages: the Dnieper and the Don.
In addition to the Central Russian swell, a number of minor uplifts and troughs stand out. These are the Lipitsko-Zybinsk uplift, located in the upper reaches of the Zushi, and the Oka depression, which is used by the upper reaches of the Oka. In addition, in the river basin Zushi discovered Devonian sediments, with which the sustained direction of river valleys is linked. Small anticlines are also found on the river. Ok and elsewhere.
The Carboniferous deposits in the territory under consideration are represented by limestones and a coal-bearing suite lying between them with alternating sand, clays and coal interlayers. In the northern part of the Central Russian Upland, Carboniferous rocks fall unevenly. MS Shvetsov (1932), and then VA Zhukov (1945) point to the existence of sharp folds in the Carboniferous layers, one of which coincides with the Oka valley. In the south, the Carboniferous descends sharply towards the Dnieper-Donetsk syneclise.
The rocks of the Mesozoic (Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous) are mainly represented by sands, as well as writing chalk and marls with occasional clay interlayers. In the center of the Voronezh anteclise, they are insignificantly thick and lie horizontally. In the direction of the Dnieper-Donetsk syneclise, their thickness increases extremely rapidly, and the layers acquire a southwestern slope. In Shchigry, the thickness of the Mesozoic is 52.4 m, in Stary Oskol - 152.2, in Kursk - 225, and in Belgorod - 360 m. On the southern slope of the Voronezh syneclise, in some places there are flexural bends in the Mesozoic layers. They are known near Belgorod, Pavlovsk, but are especially well expressed within the Kalacheka Upland, where folds in Cretaceous deposits stretch parallel to each other through the cities of Kalach and Boguchar.
Paleogene rocks lying transgressively on Cretaceous rocks are developed only in the southern part of the Central Russian Upland and are mainly represented by sands with rare interlayers of clays, sandstones and marls. They are generally much less thick than the Mesozoic rocks, reaching a maximum of 70 m.
The Central Russian Upland in its northern parts and partly along the western and eastern slopes was covered with a glacier. Therefore, in these areas, we encounter deposits of glacial origin in the form of washed-out moraine, the thickness of which varies up to 15 m. Typical moraine deposits are noted in a limited number of places, among which we can name the right bank of the Oka between Aleksin and Serpukhov. More often on the Central Russian Upland one can find bands of fluvioglacial sands stretched along river valleys.
The surface formations of the upland are loess-like loams, turning into loess in the south. Their power is variable. On watersheds, it decreases to 2-3 m, while along the slopes of river valleys and gullies it reaches 10-12 m.
Judging by the distribution and thickness of sedimentary deposits that make up the Central Russian Upland, it can be assumed that the Voronezh anteclise intensively influenced the geological development of the territories adjacent to it. Despite the fact that the Central Russian Upland, with its core in the form of the Voronezh ledge of the Precambrian, experienced both positive and negative movements, throughout the entire geological history it was a positive element of the relief, which prevented the spread of the southern seas to the north, and the northern ones to the south. This is evidenced not only by the thickness, but also by the facies composition of the deposits.
Based on this, we can conclude that the Central Russian Upland, as a formation that is quite pronounced geomorphologically, exists at least since the Paleozoic.
The geomorphological peculiarity of the Central Russian Upland lies in its very sharp and young erosional dismemberment superimposed on ancient erosional forms. The hill is a classic region of development of ravine-beam relief; therefore, the process of its development, as well as of the valley relief, is one of the main issues in the analysis of the elevation relief.
Even S. N. Nikitin (1905) established the ancient erosional nature of the Central Russian Upland, especially ancient along the northern slope of the Voronezh anteclise. On the southern and southwestern slopes, the hydrographic network is younger.
In fact, in the northern regions of the Central Russian Upland, we observe clear traces of a long stage of continental development of the territory, which lasted from the end of the Carboniferous to the beginning of the transgression of the Jurassic Sea. This period left a very uneven surface, the basis of which was the limestones of the Carboniferous and Devonian times. This surface testifies to the intensive erosional and karst processes taking place here. Along with the pre-Jurassic valleys, there are valleys of pre-Cretaceous and, finally, pre-Quaternary ages.
Analyzing the data characterizing the pre-Jurassic, pre-Cretaceous and pre-Quaternary relief of the northern part of the Central Russian Upland, and comparing it with the modern relief, we can conclude that they are close to each other, explained by the fact that the modern hydrographic network in most cases was laid down in ancient, often pre-Jurassic washouts. This applies to the rivers Oka, Proni, Shati, etc.
In the Oka basin, where Cretaceous deposits are also developed, it was found that the valley of the upper Oka, as well as its largest tributaries and the lower reaches of large dens, received clear outlines even before the onset of the deposition of Cretaceous sands, which lined the irregularities of the pre-Cretaceous relief and in many cases smoothed it out. It is very interesting that even the pre-Cretaceous Oka valley had asymmetric slopes.
The modern erosion network of the Central Russian Upland was laid down after the sea finally retreated from this territory, and in the north only after the glacier left. In this regard, the central, most elevated part of the Central Russian Upland, which first entered the continental period of development (Lower Paleogene), has the most ancient hydrographic network; it is followed by the south of the upland (Upper Paleogene). The river network of the north began to form last of all (after the glacier of the Dnieper time left it).
However, studying the history of development and age of the valley-gully network of the Central Russian Upland, one must, in addition, take into account that in the center and north of the upland, where Mesozoic deposits are thin, the ancient pre-Jurassic and pre-Cretaceous network is clearly visible in the modern relief. . Thanks to this, rivers, using it, quickly form their valleys. On the contrary, in the southern part, where the thickness of the Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits is extremely thick, the ancient Upper Paleozoic valley network does not appear in the modern relief and the rivers are forced to make their way in a new place. Because of this, the young rivers of the north have more developed valleys than the rivers of the south that arose at an earlier time.
The development of the hydrographic network of the Central Russian Upland was greatly influenced by the glacier. For the Dnieper glacier, the Central Russian Upland, and in particular the Yelets-Tula and Oryol uplifts, were a serious obstacle to its progress to the south. In this regard, the glacier was able to cover only the northern part of the Central Russian Upland, as well as its western and eastern periphery. The glacier descended in tongues to the south along the rivers Oka, Naruch, Nugra, Zusha and Seim, leaving behind a thin layer of moraine. Accumulative glacial landforms are currently not observed on the Central Russian Upland. The main role of the glacier affected the restructuring of the hydrographic network. There was a damming of the rivers flowing from the hill to the north, east and west. So, for example, B. M. Danshin (1936) believes that there was an overflow of water from the Oka basin to the Desna through the river. Nerussu and R. Navlu. At the same time, according to M. S. Shvetsov (1932), the Oka acquired its latitudinal sections between Kaluga and Aleksin and below Serpukhov.
According to M.S. Shvetsov, in the preglacial period there were two meridional valleys. One is currently used by the upper reaches of the Oka and further in the north of the river. Sukhodrev, the second is used by the meridional section of the river valley. Upy and Okoy from Aleksin to Serpukhov. The damming of the rivers by the glacier, and then by the finite moraine material, forced the rivers to seek their way out to the east and west. As a result of this, latitudinal sections of the river were created. Upa in its lower reaches, Ugry and Oka on the segment between Kaluga and Aleksin, Protva and Oka below Serpukhov.
The view of M. S. Shvetsov, which was firmly established in the literature, was subsequently refuted by V. G. Lebedev (1939), who, in the area of the Oka valley Kaluga - Aleksin, discovered a clearly developed series of ancient alluvial terraces, the heights of which coincide with the heights of the terraces of the pre-Kaluga Oka and the segment, lying below Alexin. Thus, according to V. G. Lebedev, the Oka valley is of the same age, and its morphological differences are explained by various lithological conditions encountered on its way.
Along the western and eastern margins of the Central Russian Upland, at the point of contact with the body of the glacier, a network of valleys of glacial water runoff was traced. P. Ya. Armashevsky wrote about this at one time (1903). He pointed to the existence of a once bypass valley along the edge of the glacier, which received the waters of dammed rivers. The Seim River joined through channels with Psyol and Vorskla. A similar picture was in the east of the Central Russian Upland, where the rivers flowing into the Don Lowland were latitudinally dammed and flowed in the meridional direction along the edge of the glacier to Oskol (Pine, Devitsa, Quiet Pine, Potudan).
After the departure of the glacier, the northern part of the Central Russian Upland, as well as the southern part, was subjected to intense erosional erosion. Due to this, the modern relief of the Central Russian Upland is primarily an erosive relief (Fig. 2). A. I. Spiridonov (1950) writes on this occasion that “its (relief - M. K.) forms are determined by the main pattern, density and depth of the erosion network, as well as the shape of valleys, gullies and ravines.”
Rice. 2. Ravine-gully network of the Central Russian Upland near the city of Belev.
A.F. Guzhevaya (1948) on the Central Russian Upland distinguishes two types of river network pattern: in the north and in the center, where the slope of the initial surface is insignificant and not completely defined, the direction of surface water runoff was influenced by slight terrain slopes, rock composition, and fracturing . In this case, a tree-branching pattern of the river network developed (Zusha, Sosna, Upa, Oka).
A characteristic feature of the hydrographic network of the northern part of the territory, according to A.F. Guzheva, is the narrowness of the valleys, their strong tortuosity and changing asymmetry. Sharp changes in the direction of the rivers are also typical. The slopes of the valley-beam network have a convex shape due to the increase in the steepness of the slope towards the bottom. The upper reaches of the gullies represent narrow gentle hollows, the slopes of which imperceptibly merge with the watershed space.
For the southern and southwestern slopes of the Middle Russian Upland, where the slope of the strata and topographic surface is sharper, the pattern of the river network is simpler; it is poorly developed in width, elongated, according to the slope of the terrain, in the form of a narrow strip (Oskol, Vorskla). Sometimes there are rivers with an asymmetrically developed basin. A. F. Guzhevaya (1948) calls this drawing “flag” (Quiet Pine, Kalitva, etc.). The convex-concave or concave type of slopes prevails here. The steepness of the slope decreases towards the bottom.
The southern and southwestern slopes of the upland are characterized by a pronounced asymmetry of the interfluves. The tops of the beams here are distinguished by a cirque-like structure.
These differences in the direction and pattern of the hydrographic network, according to A. F. Guzheva (1948). are explained by the difference in the original surface on which the river network lay. In the southern and southwestern parts of the Central Russian Upland, there has long been a pronounced slope of the surface to the south and west, as a result of which basins elongated in the same direction were created. In the northern part of the Central Russian Upland, the surface was more even, slightly inclined towards the Moscow Basin, due to which the basin developed evenly, acquiring the pattern of a branching tree.
The density of the division of the Central Russian Upland in its different regions is not the same. According to A. I. Spiridonov (1953), the most dissected region is located to the west of the Oka, where gullies and valleys of the Oka tributaries are widely developed. The density of dissection here is determined by the value of 1.3-1.7 km per 1 sq. km. km. A lower density of dissection is observed on the coast of the Seim, to the west and north of Kursk, in the south of the upland, in the basins of Psel, Northern Donets and Oskol, where the density of the valley-gully network is 1.1-1.5 km per 1 sq. km. km. The Zushi and Sosna basins are even less dissected (1.0-1.2 km per 1 sq. km). The central watershed part of the upland is even less dissected (up to 0.8-0.9 km, and in some places further up to 0.3-0.7 km per 1 sq. km). A similar division is observed on the watersheds of the rivers Neruch, Pine, Seim, right tributaries of the Don.
The depth of the incision of the main valleys in different parts of the Central Russian Upland is also not the same. According to S.S. Sobolev (1948), we observe the deepest valleys and ravines within the Kalach Upland in the Oskol basin, where the incision in places reaches 150 m. Oskol, Northern Donets, Psyol and their tributaries. The smallest amplitude of relief fluctuations is observed in the upper reaches of the Oka and Don, where the incision is usually 50-75 m.
Along with the ancient erosional network, the Central Russian Upland is crossed by young erosional forms - ravines and gullies (Fig. 3). It is extremely important to note that modern erosion is confined in the vast majority of cases to the ancient hydrographic network.
Rice. 3. Ravines in the Voronezh region (photo 3. 3. Vinogradov)
The morphological appearance of the ravines of the Central Russian Upland depends on the morphology of the gullies that they cut through, on the size of their catchment area, and on the lithological composition of the rocks in which they have to make their way.
A. S. Kozmenko (1937) distinguishes two groups of ravines: bottom and coastal. The first cut through the bottom of the ancient beam, the second its slope. AI Spiridonov (1953) distinguishes between two types of bottom ravines. The ravines of the first type inherit well developed ancient forms of erosion with developed gullet alluvium. The ravines cut into their bottom by 2-3 m and often reach several kilometers in length. Bottom ravines of the second type cut through the bottoms of poorly developed gullies. They are characterized by a steep longitudinal profile, 10 - 15 meters deep and often cut not only into alluvium, but also into bedrock.
Slope or coastal ravines in the Central Russian Upland usually extend for several hundred meters and have a depth of 8 - 25 m. The morphology of these ravines is largely determined by the lithology of the rocks they cut. When alternating loose and hard rocks, they often form a stepped longitudinal profile.
A.F. Guzheva (1948) compiled a map of the ravines of the Central Russian Upland, from which it can be seen that the northern part of the Middle Russian Upland, which belongs to the Oka basin, and the southwestern, located in the Sula and Psyol basins, are characterized by the least development of ravines. This is followed by the southeastern part of the upland within the left bank of the Northern Donets, in its lower reaches, where modern erosion covers only the high, steep right slopes of the valleys of the left tributaries, the basins of the middle reaches of the Psyol and Vorskla. This is followed by the entire central part of the Central Russian Upland, which includes the basin of Zushi, Sosna, Seim, the upper Psyol, where the length of the ravine network per 1 sq. km area ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 km. Finally, the most ravine region is the Donskaya part of the Central Russian Upland and the Kalachevsky Upland. Here the length of the ravine network per 1 square. km area reaches 0.5-1.2 km.
“Modern erosion,” writes A. F. Guzhevaya (1948, p. 63), “which has reached such a large size in this area, is truly a real disaster. Plot of the right slope of the river. The piedmont width of about 3 km is dissected by 25 ravines up to 20 m deep. The ravines of this region are characterized by a strong branching of their peaks. The bottoms of all the beams are cut by ravines.
The Central Russian Upland has all the necessary conditions for the vigorous development of modern erosion processes: 1) a tendency to uplift, 2) the unevenness of the initial relief, 3) the soft composition of surface rocks, 4) the speed of snow cover melting, 5) heavy summer rains, 6) more recent predatory destruction of forests and improper plowing. According to A.F. Guzheva (1948), not just one, but the manifestation in the complex of all these factors explains the wide distribution of ravines within the Central Russian Upland. However, the depth of the erosion base is still one of the most important factors influencing the intensity of development of the ravine network. Black Sea lowland
Practical work No. 3
Comparison of tectonic and physical maps and establishing the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust on the example of individual territories; explanation of the revealed patterns
Goals of the work:
1. Establish a relationship between the placement of large landforms and the structure of the earth's crust.
2. Check and evaluate the ability to compare cards, explain the identified patterns.
Comparing the physical and tectonic map of the atlas, determine which tectonic structures correspond to the indicated landforms. Make a conclusion about the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust. Explain the observed pattern.
Present the results of your work in the form of a table. (It is advisable to give work on options, including in each more than 5 landforms indicated in the table.)
|
Landforms |
Dominant Heights |
Tectonic structures underlying the territory |
Conclusion about the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust | |
|
East European Plain | ||||
|
Central Russian Upland | ||||
|
Khibiny mountains | ||||
|
West Siberian Lowland | ||||
|
Aldan Highlands | ||||
|
Ural mountains | ||||
|
Verkhoyansk Range | ||||
|
Chersky Ridge | ||||
|
Sikhote-Alin | ||||
|
median ridge | ||||
Defining and explaining placement patterns
igneous and sedimentary minerals on a tectonic map
Goals of the work:
1. Based on the tectonic map, determine the patterns of distribution of igneous and sedimentary minerals.
2. Explain the identified patterns.
1. Using the map of the atlas "Tectonics and Mineral Resources", determine what minerals the territory of our country is rich in.
2. How are the types of igneous and metamorphic deposits indicated on the map? Sedimentary?
3. Which of them are found on the platforms? What minerals (igneous or sedimentary) are confined to the sedimentary cover? Which ones - to the protrusions of the crystalline foundation of ancient platforms to the surface (shields and arrays)?
4. What types of deposits (igneous or sedimentary) are confined to folded areas?
5. Arrange the results of the analysis in the form of a table, draw a conclusion about the established dependence.
|
Tectonic structure |
Minerals |
Conclusion about installed dependency |
|
Ancient Platforms: sedimentary cover; ledges of the crystalline basement |
Sedimentary (oil, gas, coal...) Igneous (...) | |
|
Young platforms (slabs) | ||
|
Folded areas |
Practical work No. 4
Determination of the patterns of distribution of total and absorbed solar radiation from maps and their explanation
The total amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface is called total radiation.
The portion of solar radiation that heats the earth's surface is called absorbed radiation. radiation.
It is characterized by radiation balance.
Goals of the work:
1. Determine the regularities in the distribution of total and absorbed radiation, explain the revealed regularities.
2. Learn to work with different climate maps.
Work sequence
1. Consider fig. 24 on p. 49 textbook. How are the total solar radiation values shown on the hag? In what units is it measured?
2. How is the radiation balance shown? In what units is it measured?
3. Determine the total radiation and radiation balance for points located at different latitudes. Present the results of your work in the form of a table.
|
Items |
total radiation, |
radiation balance, |
|
Murmansk | ||
|
St. Petersburg | ||
|
Yekaterinburg | ||
|
Stavropol |
4. Draw a conclusion, what pattern can be seen in the distribution of total and absorbed radiation. Explain your results.
Definition bysynoptic map of weather features for various points. Making weather forecasts
Complex phenomena occurring in the troposphere are reflected on special maps -synoptic, which show the state of the weather at a certain hour. Scientists discovered the first meteorological elements on the world maps of Claudius Ptolemy. The synoptic map was created gradually. A. Humboldt in 1817 built the first isotherms. The first weather forecaster was the English hydrographer and meteorologist R. Fitzroy. From 1860 he gave forecasts of storms and compiled weather charts, which were greatly appreciated by sailors.
Goals of the work:
1. Learn to determine weather features for various points using a synoptic map. Learn how to make basic weather forecasts.
2. Check and evaluate the knowledge of the main factors affecting the state of the lower layer of the troposphere - the weather.
Work sequence
1) Analyze the synoptic map that records the state of the weather on January 11, 1992 (Fig. 88 on p. 180 of the textbook).
2) Compare the weather conditions in Omsk and Chita according to the proposed plan. Draw a conclusion about the expected weather forecast for the near future at the indicated points.
|
Comparison Plan |
Omsk |
Chita |
|
1. Air temperature | ||
|
2. Atmospheric pressure (in hectopascals) | ||
|
3. Cloudy; if there is precipitation, what | ||
|
4. What atmospheric front affects the state of the weather | ||
|
5. What is the expected forecast for the near future |
Identification of regularities in the distribution of averages January and July temperatures, annual precipitation
Goals of the work:
1. To study the distribution of temperatures and precipitation across the territory of our country, to learn how to explain the reasons for such a distribution.
2. Check the ability to work with various climate maps, draw generalizations and conclusions based on their analysis.
Work sequence
1) Consider fig. 27 on p. 57 textbooks. How is the distribution of January temperatures across the territory of our country shown? How are the January isotherms in the European and Asian parts of Russia? Where are the areas with the highest temperatures in January located? The lowest? Where is the pole of cold in our country?
Make a conclusion which of the main climate-forming factors has the most significant impact on the distribution of January temperatures. Write a summary in your notebook.
2) Consider fig. 28 on p. 58 textbook. How is the distribution of air temperature in July shown? Determine in which regions of the country the temperatures of July are the lowest, in which - the highest. What are they equal to?
Make a conclusion which of the main climate-forming factors has the most significant impact on the distribution of July temperatures. Write a summary in your notebook.
3) Consider fig. 29 on p. 59 textbook. How is the amount of precipitation shown? Where does the most precipitation fall? Where is the least?
Conclude which of the climate-forming factors have the most significant impact on the distribution of precipitation throughout the country. Write a summary in your notebook.
Determination of the moisture coefficient for various points
Goals of the work:
1. To form knowledge about the humidity coefficient as one of the most important climatic indicators.
2. Learn to determine the coefficient of moisture.
Work sequence
1) After studying the text of the textbook "Moisture coefficient", write down the definition of the concept of "moisture coefficient" and the formula by which it is determined.
2) Using fig. 29 on p. 59 and fig. 31 on p. 61, determine the humidification factor for the following cities: Astrakhan, Norilsk, Moscow, Murmansk, Yekaterinburg, Krasnoyarsk, Yakutsk, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Khabarovsk, Vladivostok(you can give tasks for two options).
3) Perform calculations and distribute cities into groups depending on the moisture coefficient. Present the results of the work in the form of a diagram:
4) Make a conclusion about the role of the ratio of heat and moisture in the formation of natural processes.
5) Can it be argued that the eastern part of the territory of the Stavropol Territory and the middle part of Western Siberia, which receive the same amount of precipitation, are equally dry?
Practical work No. 5
Determination of soil formation conditions for the main zonal soil types from maps (amount of heat and moisture, topography, nature of vegetation)
Soils and soils are a mirror and a completely truthful reflection, the result of centuries of interaction between water, air, earth, on the one hand, vegetation and animal organisms and the age of the territory, on the other.
Goals of the work:
1. Get acquainted with the main zonal soil types of our country. Determine the conditions for their formation.
2. Check and evaluate the ability to work with various sources of geographic information, draw generalizations and conclusions based on their analysis.
Work sequence
1) Based on the analysis of the text of the textbook, p. 94-96, soil map and soil profiles (textbook, pp. 100-101) determine the conditions of soil formation for the main types of soils in Russia.
2) Present the results of the work in the form of a table (give tasks for 2 options).
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Soil types |
Geographic location |
Conditions of soil formation (ratio of heat and moisture, nature of vegetation) |
Soil profile features |
Humus content |
fertility |
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Tundra | |||||
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Podzolic | |||||
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Sod - podzo - leafy | |||||
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gray forest | |||||
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Chernozems | |||||
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Brown semi-deserts | |||||
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Gray - brown deserts |
Practical work No. 3
Comparison of tectonic and physical maps and establishing the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust on the example of individual territories; explanation of the revealed patterns
Goals of the work:
1. Establish a relationship between the placement of large landforms and the structure of the earth's crust.
2. Check and evaluate the ability to compare cards, explain the identified patterns.
Comparing the physical and tectonic maps of the atlas, determine which tectonic structures correspond to the indicated landforms. Make a conclusion about the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust. Explain the observed pattern.
Present the results of your work in the form of a table. (It is advisable to give work on options, including in each more than 5 landforms indicated in the table.)
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Landforms |
Dominant Heights |
Tectonic structures underlying the territory |
Conclusion about the dependence of the relief on the structure of the earth's crust |
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The East European Plain |
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Central Russian Upland |
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Khibiny mountains |
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West Siberian Lowland |
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Aldan Highlands |
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Ural mountains |
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Verkhoyansk Range |
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Chersky Ridge |
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Sikhote-Alin |
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median ridge |
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Defining and explaining placement patterns
igneous and sedimentary minerals on a tectonic map
Goals of the work:
- Based on the tectonic map, determine the patterns of placement of igneous and sedimentary minerals.
2. Explain the identified patterns.
Work sequence
- On the map of the atlas "Tectonics and Mineral Resources", determine what minerals the territory of our country is rich in.
- How are the types of igneous and metamorphic deposits indicated on the map? Sedimentary?
- Which of them are found on the platforms? What minerals (igneous or sedimentary) are confined to the sedimentary cover? Which ones - to the protrusions of the crystalline foundation of ancient platforms to the surface (shields and arrays)?
- What types of deposits (igneous or sedimentary) are confined to folded areas?
- Arrange the results of the analysis in the form of a table, draw a conclusion about the established dependence.
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Tectonic structure |
Minerals |
installed dependency |
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Ancient Platforms: sedimentary cover; protrusions of the crystalline foundation |
Sedimentary (oil, gas, coal...) Igneous (...) |
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Young platforms (slabs) |
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Folded areas |
Practical work No. 4
Determination of the patterns of distribution of total and absorbed solar radiation from maps and their explanation
The total amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface is called total radiation.
Part of the solar radiation that heats the earth's surface is called absorbed radiation.
It is characterized by radiation balance.
Goals of the work:
1. Determine the patterns of distribution of total and absorbed radiation, explain the identified patterns.
2. Learn to work with different climate maps.
Work sequence
- Consider fig. 24 on p. 49 textbook. How are the values of total solar radiation shown on the hag? In what units is it measured?
- How is the radiation balance shown? In what units is it measured?
- Determine the total radiation and radiation balance for points located at different latitudes. Present the results of the work in the form of a table.
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total radiation, |
radiation balance, |
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St. Petersburg |
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Yekaterinburg |
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Stavropol |
4. Draw a conclusion, what pattern can be seen in the distribution of total and absorbed radiation. Explain your results.
Determination of weather features for various points using a synoptic map. Making weather forecasts
Complex phenomena occurring in the troposphere are reflected on special maps - synoptic, which show the state of the weather at a certain hour. Scientists discovered the first meteorological elements on the world maps of Claudius Ptolemy. The synoptic map was created gradually. A. Humboldt in 1817 built the first isotherms. The first weather forecaster was the English hydrographer and meteorologist R. Fitzroy. From 1860 he gave forecasts of storms and compiled weather charts, which were greatly appreciated by sailors.
Goals of the work:
- Learn to determine the weather features for various points on a synoptic map. Learn how to make elementary weather forecasts.
2. Check and evaluate the knowledge of the main factors affecting the state of the lower layer of the troposphere - the weather.
Work sequence
1) Analyze the synoptic map that records the state of the weather on January 11, 1992 (Fig. 88 on p. 180 of the textbook).
2) Compare the weather in Omsk and Chita according to the proposed plan. Draw a conclusion about the expected weather forecast for the near future at the indicated points.
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Comparison Plan |
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1. Air temperature |
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2. Atmospheric pressure (in hectopascals) |
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3. Cloudy; if there is precipitation, what |
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4. What atmospheric front affects the state of the weather |
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5. What is the expected forecast for the near future |
Identification of regularities in the distribution of average temperatures in January and July, annual precipitation
Goals of the work:
1. To study the distribution of temperatures and precipitation across the territory of our country, to learn how to explain the reasons for such a distribution.
2. Check the ability to work with various climate maps, draw generalizations and conclusions based on their analysis.
Work sequence
1) Consider fig. 27 on p. 57 textbooks. How is the distribution of January temperatures across the territory of our country shown? How are the January isotherms in the European and Asian parts of Russia? Where are the areas with the highest January temperatures located? The lowest? Where is the pole of cold in our country?
Make a conclusion which of the main climate-forming factors has the most significant impact on the distribution of January temperatures. Write a summary in your notebook.
2) Consider fig. 28 on p. 58 textbook. How is the distribution of air temperatures in July shown? Determine in which regions of the country the temperatures of July are the lowest, in which - the highest. What are they equal to?
Conclude which of the main climate-forming factors has the most significant impact on the distribution of July temperatures. Write a summary in your notebook.
3) Consider fig. 29 on p. 59 textbook. How is the amount of precipitation shown? Where does the most precipitation fall? Where is the least?
Make a conclusion which of the climate-forming factors have the most significant impact on the distribution of precipitation throughout the country. Write a summary in your notebook.
Determination of the moisture coefficient for various points
Goals of the work:
- To form knowledge about the coefficient of humidification as one of the most important climatic indicators.
2. Learn to determine the coefficient of moisture.
Work sequence
1) After studying the text of the textbook "Moisture Coefficient", write down the definition of the concept of "moisture coefficient" and the formula by which it is determined.
2) Using fig. 29 on p. 59 and fig. 31 on p. 61, determine the moisture coefficient for the following cities: Astrakhan, Norilsk, Moscow, Murmansk, Yekaterinburg, Krasnoyarsk, Yakutsk, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Khabarovsk, Vladivostok (you can give tasks for two options).
3) Perform calculations and distribute cities into groups depending on the moisture coefficient. Draw the results of the work in the form of a diagram:
4) Make a conclusion about the role of the ratio of heat and moisture in the formation of natural processes.
5) Can it be argued that the eastern part of the territory of the Stavropol Territory and the middle part of Western Siberia, which receive the same amount of precipitation, are equally dry?
The position of the characterized territory within the Russian Plain is indicated by the name of the hill. When looking at a geographical map, its middle position on the plain is striking. The Central Russian Upland, stretching from north to south for more than 800 km, and from west to east (at the latitude of the city of Orel) - by 300 km, is a watershed between the Caspian, Black and Azov seas. In the north, its border is a wide valley of the river. Oka with upland right bank and vast floodplain meadows on the left bank. In the east, the boundary of the hill can be drawn along the right steep bank of the river. Don, coinciding with the slopes of the hill. From the west, it is bordered by the Dnieper lowland. The southern border runs along the river valley. Seversky Donets. Outside these borders, the Kalach Upland is located, cut off from the Central Russian Valley by the river. Don and located between the lower segments of the valleys of the Bityug and Khopra rivers.
The Central Russian Upland is a wavy plateau, strongly indented by deep valleys of rivers, beams and ravines, lying above sea level above the isohypse of 200 m. Its most elevated part is located between Kursk and Efremov, where individual points of the relief have heights of 290-300 m.
At the heart of the Central Russian Upland (region of Kursk, Voronezh and Orel) is the Voronezh anteclise, composed of Precambrian rocks that lie shallow here. The Kursk magnetic anomaly, which was discovered using gravimetric and magnetometric methods, is confined to Precambrian rocks. A band of magnetic anomalies is observed along the Kursk-Tim-Schigry line. The deposit is represented by quartzites, the average percentage of iron content in them is 35-45. This deposit, discovered in the center of the European part of the USSR, is of great importance for the development of industry. The thickness of sedimentary deposits overlying bedrock does not exceed 120-200 m. To the sides of the anteclise axis (Pavlovsk-Kursk), Precambrian rocks go to a greater depth, and the thickness of sedimentary deposits increases accordingly.
In the north (on the gentle slope of the Voronezh anteclise), the most ancient deposits are Devonian, represented by limestones, sandstones, clays, which are part of the "Central Devonian field". They are opened by rivers in the Don and Oka basins, where they form picturesque valleys. In the southern part of the region (on the steep southern slope of the Voronezh anteclise), the Devonian layers dip steeply towards the Dnieper. In the area of Kaluga and Tula, the Devonian deposits are overlain by Carboniferous deposits, which stretch across the upland in a wide strip in the direction from west-north-west to east-south-east. Carboniferous deposits are mainly represented by limestones, among which lies the productive clay-coal-bearing stratum of the Moscow Basin, which belongs to the Lower Carboniferous. It is associated with brown coal deposits, the development center of which is located in the Novomoskovsk region, as well as iron ore, which is used by the Lipetsk Metallurgical Plant. Ores occur in the Tula region. In the south, Carboniferous deposits plunge sharply towards the Dnieper-Donetsk syneclise.
There are no Permian and Triassic deposits on the Central Russian Upland. Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits are not distributed everywhere, but occupy mainly the eastern, southern and western regions, as well as partially the central ones. Jurassic deposits are represented by clays with siderites and continental sandy-clayey rocks. They come to the surface in few places, as they are covered with Cretaceous deposits, the thickness of which consists mainly of various sandy rocks with rare interlayers of clays and phosphorites. In some places, the Cretaceous stratum is thicker and breaks up into two sections. The upper section ends in the southwest with layers of white writing chalk, which is mined in the Belgorod region. Deposits of white writing chalk form picturesque rocks. Due to the erosion of the chalk, high pillars are formed, called "divas" (near Belgorod, Divnogorye). Cretaceous sands and loess-like loams, which cover the layers of writing chalk, are very loose. Deep ravines with vertical walls are developed in loess-like loams. Towards the Dnieper-Donetsk syneclise, the thickness of the Mesozoic rocks increases, reaching 360 m in Belgorod; their power in Shchigry is 52 m. In the Tertiary, the entire northern part of the upland from the Voronezh-Kursk line was dry land. To the south of this line, sandy rocks belonging to the lower stages of the Paleogene are developed.
In the Quaternary, the glacier entered the Central Russian Upland only along its outskirts, covering the northern part, as well as partially the western and eastern slopes. Within these territories, deposits of glacial origin are represented by washed-out moraine, which can be observed in the valley of the river. Oka near the town of Chekalina (Likhvin). Here, bands of fluvioglacial sands are widespread in large numbers, which are extended along river valleys. Quaternary deposits are mainly represented by brown carbonate loess-like loams, as well as reddish-brown clays, loams and sandy loams of deluvial-eluvial formation. Loess-like loams in the south turn into loess. Their power is different. On watersheds, loesses are often completely absent or reach 2-3 m. On the slopes of river valleys and gullies, their thickness is 10-12 m. Lithology has a great influence on the formation of the relief of various parts of the upland and introduces significant differences into it.
The northern part of the upland up to the parallel of Orel, where limestones are widely represented, is sharply dissected by deep river valleys. On the slopes of the valleys, solid layers of limestone form steep and rocky walls, cornices, cliffs, underlying the overlying loose strata, which are often represented by loess-like loams. Limestones contribute to the creation of small canyon-like valleys. The development of karst forms is also connected with them. In the middle and southern parts of the territory, where loose strata are developed, wide terraced valleys with sloping slopes predominate. Sharper landforms are confined to areas where writing chalk is distributed. Such a roughly dissected relief with a large amplitude of relative heights is observed near Belgorod. In the loess layer, ravines with steep walls arose.
The modern relief of the Central Russian Upland was created mainly by the eroding activity of water flows, which was closely related to the epeirogenic movements of the earth's crust, lithology, climatic factors, etc. M. V. Karandeeva writes that the geomorphological originality of the Central Russian Upland lies in its very sharp and young erosional dismemberment superimposed on ancient erosion forms.
The hill is a classic region of development of ravine-beam relief. Numerous river valleys, as well as a dense network of ravines and gullies, give the surface a rugged character. In different regions of the Central Russian Upland, the density of dissection is not the same. The most dissected region is the northern one - to the west of the Oka, less - the southern one, in the basins of the Seversky Donets, Oskol, Psel, etc., as well as the central watershed part. Particularly deep valleys and ravines are located within the Kalach Upland and in the southern parts of the Central Russian Upland, where the incision depth reaches 125-150 m. Here the ravine-beam network reaches significant development - 1-2 km ravines account for 1 km 2 area.
Ravines are a characteristic feature of the Central Russian Upland as a whole. The riverine sections of the interfluves are heavily indented by ravines, and only some of them go far into the watersheds. There are known cases of sawing of watersheds by ravines. The gully network reaches its greatest development in the basin of the Oka and Truda rivers (the left tributary of the Sosna river) and in the basin of the upper reaches of the Kroma, Neruch, Svana, and other rivers. Loose strata of loess-like loams and loess in combination with climatic conditions (rapid snow in the spring, the occurrence of frost cracks and showers). Natural conditions favorable for the growth of ravines in the past were intensified by human economic activity, primitive agriculture, devoid of elementary agricultural technology. The lack of land of the peasants in pre-revolutionary Russia led to the fact that the steep slopes of valleys and gullies, i.e., the most dangerous areas in terms of erosion, were plowed up. The ravine originated in loose soil, then, growing, it turned into a narrow, branching deep rut.
Interfluves are flat or slightly undulating areas, rising above sea level by an average of 250 m. The slopes of the watersheds are gently sloping, they noticeably decrease towards the river valleys and are usually dissected by ravines. On the surface of the watershed spaces, depressions (steppe saucers) with a diameter of 15-20 and 50 m and depth 1.5-2m.
The river network of the Central Russian Upland is dense; it divides its surface in various directions. Within the upland, many rivers of the Russian Plain begin and flow. This is where the river starts. Oka with tributaries Upa, Ugra, Zusha, Zhizdra and Protva. The river flows in the western part. Desna, in the southwestern part, the rivers Seim, Psel, Vorskla begin, flowing into the river. Dnieper. In the southern part, the Seversky Donets and Oskol rivers begin. Somewhat east of Lake Ivan, in the upper reaches of a shallow ravine, at the bottom of which a strip of marshy soil with puddles of water meanders, the river originates. Don. The Don River to the mouth of the river. The Bityuga flows in a meridional direction, and then it turns east and comes close to the Volga.
Climate. The climate of the Central Russian Upland and the Oka-Don Lowland lying to the east of it is formed under the influence of two factors: 1) cyclonic activity and the associated entry of air masses of various origins (both warm from the west and southwest, and cold, arctic); 2) heating or cooling the incoming air, depending on the state of the underlying surface and the radiation entering the Earth's surface.
The described area is characterized by moderately cold winters, moderate summers and sufficient moisture. The continentality of the climate increases towards the east and southeast. The radiation balance for the year is 27-32 kcal / cm 2. The amount of incoming solar radiation for the summer months reaches 41-44kcal / cm 2.
Due to the large role of the Atlantic occurrences, the isotherms of the winter months, as in other regions of the Russian Plain, deviate from the parallels and are located from the northwest to the southeast. The average temperature in January fluctuates in different parts from -9 to -12°, the absolute minimum is -35, -40°. Such temperatures are observed during the stagnation of air masses and their cooling.
The maximum height of snow cover is observed in the third decade of February; it starts to decrease from 45 cm in the northeastern regions up to 30 cm in the southern and southwestern ones, which is explained both by the influence of thaws and by a reduction in the total duration of snow cover. There are often snowstorms in February.
During the summer period, usually in the second half of summer, the weather can be overcast and rainy due to the passage of cyclones or hot and dry with intermittent showers and thunderstorms. The latter is observed during the transformation of air masses in vast anticyclones, which occupy most of the European territory of the USSR.
In summer, the highest temperatures are observed in the southeastern part of the region (the average July temperature in Voronezh is +21°C), slightly lower than the temperature in the northwestern part (up to +19°C). The maximum precipitation falls in July (60-70 mm). The annual amount of precipitation brought by both western and southern cyclones on the territory of the described region is on average 500-550 mm, decreasing slightly to the southeast.
Soils. In the forest-steppe part of the Central Russian Upland, there are two soil bands: a band of gray forest-steppe soils and a band of leached and degraded chernozems. The border between them runs along the line: Kursk-Orel-Mtsensk-Odoev-Tula-Mikhailov.
In the steppe zone, there are: a strip of typical chernozem and a strip of medium-humus ordinary chernozems.
The soils of the forest-steppe and steppe zones are characterized by a high content of humus. In the poorest varieties of forest-steppe soils (in podzolized forest-steppe soils), the percentage of humus content is at least 2.5, in chernozems it reaches 10 or more. Developed on loess or loess-like loam, these soils have a good mechanical composition capable of producing a granular structure that provides favorable conditions for plant development. These soils are easily cultivated.
Vegetation. At present, most of the territory of the upland has been plowed up and natural vegetation has been preserved mainly along river valleys, as well as along the slopes of gullies and ravines. As a result of predatory deforestation in pre-revolutionary times, only small areas (Tula Zasek) remained of the former forests. They give an idea of the forests of the past. The tree stand in the acres consists of oak( Quercus robur) with his usual companions - ash( Fraxinus excelsiot), maple ( Acer platanoides), linden ( Tilia cordata). In addition to oak forests, there are birch and aspen groves.
In the northern parts of the Central Russian Upland, on steep limestone slopes, upland birch forests are developed. Relicts are found in the grass cover: silky wormwood, lupine clover, etc.
In the typical forest-steppe subzone, modern forests are represented by ravine oak forests, which have survived to this day only in a few places and in small areas (the region of Belgorod and Valuyek). In the south of the upland, within the limits of the exit to the surface of chalk deposits, chalk forests are developed, which have also been preserved in a few places (the right bank of the Nezhegol River, the Oskol region, the right bank of the Potudan River, etc.). Of great interest is the vegetation in the Galichya Gora region (Lipetsk region), where there is an accumulation of relict plants, of which there are a large number here. Among them: fern, steppe kostenets, kuzmicheva grass, Sophia's wolfberry, shaggy breakwort, etc. Aspen-oak bushes are developed along the depressions of the region's interfluves.
The steppe areas of the forest-steppe are almost completely plowed up, and spots of the virgin steppe have survived only in a few places, such as the Streletskaya steppe, the Cossack and Yamskaya steppes (they are part of the V. V. Alekhin reserve). These spots belong to forb steppes with a large number of plants. Here, among the cereals, a direct fire stands out ( Bromus erectus) and dog bent( Agrostis canina), and from sedges - low sedge( Carex humilis) and etc.
The southeastern part of the Central Russian Upland, together with the Kalach Upland, was occupied by steppes before plowing.
The animal world, as well as vegetation, changes in the direction from northwest to southeast. Even 200-300 years ago, the north of the Central Russian Upland was inhabited by a large number of animals, which were representatives of both forest and steppe fauna. Bears, elks, deer, roes lived in the forests, ground squirrels, jerboas, and bobaks were found in the steppe areas. In order to restore the fauna in the Voronezh State Reserve, beavers are currently bred.
The fertile soils of the Central Russian Upland, a large number of minerals contribute to the development of agriculture and industry associated with local raw materials. A lot of sugar, bread, phosphorite flour and local building materials are produced here. In addition, the metalworking and machine-building industries are developed.
- Source-
Davydova, M.I. Physical geography of the USSR / M.I. Davydova [and d.b.]. - M .: Education, 1966. - 847 p.
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